Archive for Women's Health
Women and Violence
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Violence affects the lives of millions of women worldwide, in all socio-economic and educational classes. It cuts across cultural and religious barriers, impeding the right of women to participate fully in society. Violence against women takes a dismaying variety of forms, from domestic abuse and rape to child marriages and female circumcision. All are violations of the most fundamental human rights.
In a statement to the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in September 1995, the United Nations Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, said that violence against women is a universal problem that must be universally condemned. But he said that the problem continues to grow.
The Secretary-General noted that domestic violence alone is on the increase. Studies in 10 countries, he said, have found that between 17 per cent and 38 per cent of women have suffered physical assaults by a partner.
In the Platform for Action, the core document of the Beijing Conference, Governments declared that “violence against women constitutes a violation of basic human rights and is an obstacle to the achievement of the objectives of equality, development and peace”.
The Work Of The Special Reporter
The issue of the advancement of women’s rights has concerned the United Nations since the Organization’s founding. Yet the alarming global dimensions of female-targeted violence were not explicitly acknowledged by the international community until December 1993, when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women.
Until that point, most Governments tended to regard violence against women largely as a private matter between individuals, and not as a pervasive human rights problem requiring State intervention. In view of the alarming growth in the number of cases of violence against women throughout the world, the Commission on Human Rights adopted resolution 1994/45 of 4 March 1994, in which it decided to appoint the Special Reporter on violence against women, including its causes and consequences.
As a result of these steps, the problem of violence against women has been drawing increasing political attention. The Special Reporter has a mandate to collect and analyze comprehensive data and to recommend measures aimed at eliminating violence at the international, national and regional levels. The mandate is threefold: ? To collect information on violence against women and its causes and consequences from sources such as Governments, treaty bodies, specialized agencies and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and to respond effectively to such information; To recommend measures and ways and means, at the national, regional and international levels, to eliminate violence against women and its causes, and to remedy its consequences; To work closely with other special reporters, special representatives, working groups and independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights.
Incest, Rape And Domestic Violence
Some females fall prey to violence before they are born, when expectant parents abort their unborn daughters, hoping for sons instead. In other societies, girls are subjected to such traditional practices as circumcision, which leave them maimed and traumatized. In others, they are compelled to marry at an early age, before they are physically, mentally or emotionally mature.
Women are victims of incest, rape and domestic violence that often lead to trauma, physical handicap or death. And rape is still being used as a weapon of war, a strategy used to subjugate and terrify entire communities. Soldiers deliberately impregnate women of different ethnic groups and abandon them when it is too late to get an abortion. The Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women declared that rape in armed conflict is a war crime — and could, under certain circumstances, be considered genocide. Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali told the Beijing Conference that more women today were suffering directly from the effects of war and conflict than ever before in history.
“There is a deplorable trend towards the organized humiliation of women, including the crime of mass rape”, the Secretary-General said. “We will press for international legal action against those who perpetrate organized violence against women in time of conflict.”
A preliminary report in 1994 by the Special Reporter, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, focused on three areas of concern where women are particularly vulnerable:
1. in the family (including domestic violence, traditional practices, infanticide);
2. in the community (including rape, sexual assault, commercialized violence such as trafficking in women, labor exploitation, female migrant workers etc.);
3. and by the State (including violence against women in detention as well as violence against women in situations of armed conflict and against refugee women).
In the Platform for Action adopted at the Beijing Conference, violence against women and the human rights of women are 2 of the 12 critical areas of concern identified as the main obstacles to the advancement of women.
Commitments By Governments
Governments agreed to adopt and implement national legislation to end violence against women and to work actively to ratify all international agreements that relate to violence against women. They agreed that there should be shelters, legal aid and other services for girls and women at risk, and counseling and rehabilitation for perpetrators. Governments also pledged to adopt appropriate measures in the field of education to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women. And the Platform called on media professionals to develop self-regulatory guidelines to address violent, degrading and pornographic materials while encouraging non-stereotyped, balanced and diverse images of women.
Defining Gender-Based Abuse
The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women is the first international human rights instrument to exclusively and explicitly address the issue of violence against women. It affirms that the phenomenon violates, impairs or nullifies women’s human rights and their exercise of fundamental freedoms.
The Declaration provides a definition of gender-based abuse, calling it “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life”.
The definition is amplified in article 2 of the Declaration, which identifies three areas in which violence commonly takes place:
1.Physical, sexual and psychological violence that occurs in the family, including battering; sexual abuse of female children in the household; dowry-related violence; marital rape; female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women; non-spousal violence; and violence related to exploitation;
2. Physical, sexual and psychological violence that occurs within the general community, including rape; sexual abuse; sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere; trafficking in women; and forced prostitution;
3. Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the State, wherever it occurs.
Groundwork Is Laid In Vienna
The importance of the question of violence against women was emphasized over the last decade through the holding of several expert group meetings sponsored by the United Nations to draw attention to the extent and severity of the problem.
In September 1992, the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women established a special Working Group and gave it a mandate to draw up a draft declaration on violence against women.
The following year, the United Nations Commission for Human Rights, in resolution 1993/46 of 3 March, condemned all forms of violence and violations of human rights directed specifically against women. The World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in June 1993, laid extensive groundwork for eliminating violence against women. In the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, Governments declared that the United Nations system and Member States should work towards the elimination of violence against women in public and private life; of all forms of sexual harassment, exploitation and trafficking in women; of gender bias in the administration of justice; and of any conflicts arising between the rights of women and the harmful effects of certain traditional or customary practices, cultural prejudices and religious extremism.
The document also declared that “violations of the human rights of women in situations of armed conflicts are violations of the fundamental principles of international human rights and humanitarian law”, and that all violations of this kind — including murder, systematic rape, sexual slavery and forced pregnancy — “require a particularly effective
response”.
Kinds Of Violence Against Women
Domestic violence
Violence against women in the family occurs in developed and developing countries alike. It has long been considered a private matter by bystanders — including neighbours, the community and government. But such private matters have a tendency to become public tragedies.
In the United States, a woman is beaten every 18 minutes. Indeed, domestic violence is the leading cause of injury among women of reproductive age in the United States. Between 22 and 35 per cent of women who visit emergency rooms are there for that reason. The highly publicized trial of O. J. Simpson, the retired United States football player acquitted of the murder of his former wife and a male friend of hers, helped focus international media attention on the issue of domestic violence and spousal abuse. In Peru, 70 per cent of all crimes reported to the police involve women beaten by their husbands. In Pakistan, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto strongly defended a 35-year-old mother of two who was severely burned by her husband in a domestic dispute.
“There is no excuse for such a behaviour”, the Prime Minister declared after visiting the hospitalized victim. “My presence here is to send a message to all those who violate Islamic teachings and defy laws of the land with their inhuman treatment of women. This will not be tolerated.” According to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, in the 400 cases of domestic violence reported in 1993 in the province of Punjab, nearly half ended with the death of the wife.
According to the Special Reporter’s report, many Governments now recognize the importance of protecting victims of domestic abuse and taking action to punish perpetrators. The establishment of structures allowing officials to deal with cases of domestic violence and its consequences is a significant step towards the elimination of violence against women in the family.
The Special Reporter’s report highlights the importance of adopting legislation that provides for prosecution of the offender. It also stresses the importance of specialized training for law enforcement authorities as well as medical and legal professionals, and of the establishment of community support services for victims, including access to information and shelters.
Traditional practices
In many countries, women fall victim to traditional practices that violate their human rights. The persistence of the problem has much to do with the fact that most of these physically and psychologically harmful customs are deeply rooted in the tradition and culture of society.
Female genital mutilation
According to the World Health Organization, 85 million to 115 million girls and women in the population have undergone some form of female genital mutilation and suffer from its adverse health effects. Every year an estimated 2 million young girls undergo this procedure. Most live in Africa and Asia — but an increasing number can be found among immigrant and refugee families in Western Europe and North America. Indeed, the practice has been outlawed in some European countries. In France, a Malian was convicted in a criminal court after his baby girl died of a female circumcision-related infection. The procedure had been performed on the infant at home.
In Canada, fear of being forced to undergo circumcision can be grounds for asylum. A Nigerian woman was granted refugee status since she felt that she might be persecuted in her home country because of her refusal to inflict genital mutilation on her baby daughter. There is a growing consensus that the best way to eliminate these practices is through educational campaigns that emphasize their dangerous health consequences. Several Governments have been actively promoting such campaigns in their countries.
Son preference
Son preference affects women in many countries, particularly in Asia. Its consequences can be anything from fetal or female infanticide to neglect of the girl child over her brother in terms of such essential needs as nutrition, basic health care and education. In China and India, some women choose to terminate their pregnancies when expecting daughters but carry their pregnancies to term when expecting sons.
According to reports from India, genetic testing for sex selection has become a booming business, especially in the country’s northern regions. Indian gender-detection clinics drew protests from women’s groups after the appearance of advertisements suggesting that it was better to spend $38 now to terminate a female fetus than $3,800 later on her dowry. A study of amniocentesis procedures conducted in a large Bombay hospital found that 95.5 per cent of fetuses identified as female were aborted, compared with a far smaller percentage of male fetuses. The problem of son preference is present in many other countries as well. Asked how many children he had fathered, the former United States boxing champion Muhammad Ali told an interviewer: “One boy and seven mistakes.”
Dowry-related violence and early marriage
In some countries, weddings are preceded by the payment of an agreed-upon dowry by the bride’s family. Failure to pay the dowry can lead to violence.
In Bangladesh, a bride whose dowry was deemed too small was disfigured after her husband threw acid on her face. In India, an average of five women a day are burned in dowry-related disputes — and many more cases are never reported. Early marriage, especially without the consent of the girl, is another form of human rights violation. Early marriage followed by multiple pregnancies can affect the health of women for life. The report of the Special Reporter has documented the destructive effects of marriage of female children under 18 and has urged Governments to adopt relevant legislation.
Violence In The Community
Rape
Rape can occur anywhere, even in the family, where it can take the form of marital rape or incest. It occurs in the community, where a woman can fall prey to any abuser. It also occurs in situations of armed conflict and in refugee camps.
In the United States, national statistics indicate that a woman is raped every six minutes. In 1995, the case of a Brazilian jogger raped and murdered in New York City’s Central Park drew international attention once again to the problem. The incident occurred only a few years after an earlier sensational jogger-assault case in which the victim — an American assaulted in the same general area of the park — barely survived after her assailants left her for dead.
Relations between residents of the Japanese island of Okinawa and American GIs were thrown into turmoil in 1995 after two marines and a sailor allegedly kidnapped and raped a 12-year-old girl. The Special Reporter?s report underlines the importance of education to sensitize the public about the special horrors of rape, and of sensitivity training for the police and hospital staff who work with victims.
Sexual assault within marriage
In many countries sexual assault by a husband on his wife is not considered to be a crime: a wife is expected to submit. It is thus very difficult in practice for a woman to prove that sexual assault has occurred unless she can demonstrate serious injury. The report of the Special Reporter noted that light sentences in sexual
assault cases send the wrong message to perpetrators and to the public at large: that female sexual victimization is unimportant.
Sexual harassment
Sexual harassment in the workplace is a growing concern for women. Employers abuse their authority to seek sexual favors from their female co-workers or subordinates, sometimes promising promotions or other forms of career advancement or simply creating an untenable and hostile work environment. Women who refuse to give in to such unwanted sexual advances often run the risk of anything from demotion to dismissal. But in recent years more women have been coming forward to report such practices — some taking their cases to court.
In her report, the Special Reporter stressed that sexual harassment constitutes a form of sex discrimination. “It not only degrades the woman”, the report noted, “but reinforces and reflects the idea of non-professionalism on the part of women workers, who are consequently regarded as less able to perform their duties than their male colleagues.”
Prostitution And Trafficking
Many women are forced into prostitution either by their parents, husbands or boyfriends — or as a result of the difficult economic and social conditions in which they find themselves. They are also lured into prostitution, sometimes by “mail-order bride” agencies that promise to find them a husband or a job in a foreign country. As a result, they very often find themselves illegally confined in brothels in slavery-like conditions where they are physically abused and their passports withheld.
Most women initially victimized by sexual traffickers have little inkling of what awaits them. They generally get a very small percentage of what the customer pays to the pimp or the brothel owner. Once they are caught up in the system there is practically no way out, and they find themselves in a very vulnerable situation. Since prostitution is illegal in many countries, it is difficult for prostitutes to come forward and ask for protection if they become victims of rape or want to escape from brothels. Customers, on the other hand, are rarely the object of penal laws.
In Thailand, prostitutes who complain to the police are often arrested and sent back to the brothels upon payment of a fine. The extent of trafficking in women and girl children has reached alarming proportions, especially in Asian countries.
Many women and girl children are trafficked across borders, often with the complicity of border guards. In one incident, five young prostitutes burned to death in a brothel fire because they had been chained to their beds. At the same time, sex tours of developing countries are a well-organized industry in several European and other industrialized countries.
The Special Reporter has called on Governments to take action to protect young girls from being recruited as prostitutes and to closely monitor recruiting agencies.
Violence Against Women Migrant Workers
Female migrant workers typically leave their countries for better living conditions and better pay — but the real benefits accrue to both the host countries and the countries of origin.
For home countries, money sent home by migrant workers is an important source of hard currency, while receiving countries are able to find workers for low-paying jobs that might otherwise go unfilled.
But migrant workers themselves fare badly, and sometimes tragically. Many become virtual slaves, subject to abuse and rape by their employers.
In the Middle East and Persian Gulf region, there are an estimated 1.2 million women, mainly Asians, who are employed as domestic servants. According to the independent human rights group Middle East Watch, female migrant workers in Kuwait often suffer beatings and sexual assaults at the hands of their employers.
The police are often of little help. In many cases, women who report being raped by their employers are sent back to the employer — or are even assaulted at the police station. Working conditions are often appalling, and employers prevent women from escaping by seizing their passports or identity papers. The report of the Special Reporter draws attention to the fact that there are many international instruments that can be used to prevent abuse against migrant women and suggests some measures to protect the human rights of migrant women.
Pornography
Another concern highlighted in the Special Reporter’s report is pornography, which represents a form of violence against women that “glamorizes the degradation and maltreatment of women and asserts their subordinate function as mere receptacles for male lust”.
Violence Perpetrated Or Condoned By States
Custodial Violence Against Women
Violence against women by the very people who are supposed to protect them — members of the law enforcement and criminal justice systems — is widespread.
Women are physically or verbally abused; they also suffer sexual and physical torture. According to Amnesty International, thousands of women held in custody are routinely raped in police detention centers worldwide. The report of the Special Reporter underlines the necessity for States to prosecute those accused of abusing women while in detention and to hold them accountable for their actions.
Violence Against Women In Situations Of Armed Conflict
Rape has been widely used as a weapon of war whenever armed conflicts arise between different parties. It has been used all over the world: in Chiapas, Mexico, in Rwanda, in Kuwait, in Haiti, in Colombia. Women and girl children are frequently victims of gang rape committed by soldiers from all sides of a conflict. Such acts are done mainly to trample the dignity of the victims. Rape has been used to reinforce the policy of ethnic cleansing in the war that has been tearing apart the former Yugoslavia.
The so-called “comfort women” — young girls of colonized or occupied countries who became sexual slaves to Japanese soldiers during the Second World War — have dramatized the problem in a historical context. Many of these women are now coming forward and demanding compensation for their suffering from Japanese authorities. “Such rape is the symbolic rape of the community, the destruction of the fundamental elements of a society and culture — the ultimate humiliation of the male enemy”, the report by the Special Reporter noted. It stressed the need to hold the perpetrators of such crimes fully accountable.
Violence Against Refugee And Displaced Women
Women and children form the great majority of refugee populations all over the world and are especially vulnerable to violence and exploitation. In refugee camps, they are raped and abused by military and immigration personnel, bandit groups, male refugees and rival ethnic groups. They are also forced into prostitution. In her report, the Special Reporter proposes the following measures to be taken for the protection of women and girls in refugee camps: improvement of security, deployment of trained female officers at all points of the refugees’ journey, participation of women in organizational structures of the camps and prosecution of government and military personnel responsible for abuse against refugee women.
Legal Steps To Criminalize Violence Against Women
In recent years some countries have taken significant steps towards improving laws relating to violence against women. For example:
# In July 1991, Mexico revised its rape law in several important ways. A provision was eliminated that allowed a man who rapes a minor to avoid prosecution if he agrees to marry her. Now judges are required to hand down a decision regarding access to an abortion within five working days.
# On 9 June 1994, the Organization of American States adopted the Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Punish and Eradicate Violence against Women a new international instrument that recognizes all gender-based violence as an abuse of human rights. This Convention provides an individual right of petition and a right for non-governmental organizations to lodge complaints with the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights.
# In Australia, a National Committee on Violence against Women was established to coordinate the development of policy, legislation and law enforcement at the national level as well as community education on violence against women.
# In 1991, the Government of Canada announced a new four-year Family Violence Initiative intended to mobilize community action, strengthen Canada’s legal framework, establish services on Indian reserves and in Inuit communities, develop resources to help victims and stop offenders, and provide housing for abused women and children.
# In Turkey, a Ministry of State for Women was established whose main goals are, among others, to promote women’s rights and strengthen their role in economic, social, political and cultural life. Legal measures are being adopted towards the elimination of violence against women.
The establishment of special courts to deal with violence is envisaged. Psychological treatment for abused women is also planned, along with the establishment of women’s shelters around the country. Specially trained female police officers could provide assistance to victims of violence. ? In Burkina Faso, a strong advertising campaign by the Government as well as television and radio programmes on the unhealthy practice of genital mutilation was launched to educate and raise public awareness about the dangerous consequences of such an “operation”. A National Anti-Excision Committee was established in 1990 by the present head of State. Today, the practice of genital mutilation has been eliminated in some villages of Burkina Faso. In others, there has been an incredible drop in the number of girls excised: only 10 per cent of the girls are excised compared to 100 per cent 10 years ago.
? Some countries have introduced police units specially trained for dealing with spousal assault. In Brazil, specific police stations have been designated to deal with women’s issues, including domestic violence. These police stations are staffed entirely by women.
Ensuring That Laws Are Obeyed
These examples illustrate some steps taken at the national level towards the eradication of violence against women. Combating and eradicating this scourge require enhanced and concerted efforts to protect women at the local, national and international levels.
States have tended to adopt a passive attitude when confronted by cases of violations of women’s rights by private actors. Most laws fail to protect victims or to punish perpetrators. Passing laws to criminalize violence against women is an important way to redefine the limits of acceptable behavior.
States should ensure that national legislation, once adopted, does not go unenforced. State responsibility is clearly underlined in article 4 of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, which stipulates that “States should exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate and, in accordance with national legislation, punish acts of violence against women, whether those acts are perpetrated by the State or by private persons”.
Any approach designed to combat violence must be twofold, addressing the root causes of the problem and treating its manifestations. Society at large, including judges and police officers, must be educated to change the social attitudes and beliefs that encourage male violence.
Conclusion
The meaning of gender and sexuality and the balance of power between women and men at all levels of society must be reviewed. Combating violence against women requires challenging the way that gender roles and power relations are articulated in society. In many countries women have a low status. They are considered as inferior and there is a strong belief that men are superior to them and even own them. Changing people’s attitude and mentality towards women will take a long time — at least a generation, many believe, and perhaps longer. Nevertheless, raising awareness of the issue of violence against women, and educating boys and men to view women as valuable partners in life, in the development of a society and in the attainment of peace are just as important as taking legal steps to protect women’s human rights. It is also important in order to prevent violence that non-violent means be used to resolve conflict between all members of society. Breaking the cycle of abuse will require concerted collaboration and action between governmental and non-governmental actors, including educators, health-care authorities, legislators, the judiciary and the mass media.
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Help answer the question
Why do women get jealous of other women who receive gifts from a male?
At work, some women are friendly with me, but when I decide to give a gift, or candy like for valentine's Day to a certain woman out of kindness, other women get very jealous, And these women are already married, or have boyfriends? Is there something wrong with these women relationships? Do I show a trait that their lovers don't show. Once a woman manipulated me to give her flowers for her birthday, and she's already married too. What's up? Please give me some advice about these kind of women. Thanks!
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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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Normal 0 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
ABSTRACT
Women constitute almost 50% of the world’s population. As per as their social status is concerned, they are not treated as equal to men in all the places. Empowering may be understood as enabling people, especially women to acquire and possess power resources, in order to make decision on their own or resist decisions that are made by others that affect them. A person may said to be powerful when he/she has control over a large portion of power resources in society. The extent of possession of various resources such as personal wealth, such as land skills, education, information, knowledge, social status, position held, leadership trains, capabilities of mobilization.
It is now widely believed that empowerment of women i.e., providing equal rights, opportunities and responsibilities to women, will go a long way in removing the existing gender discrimination. Women empowerment in contemporary Indian society in forms of their work, education, health and media images in the forms of
their work, education, health and media images in the context of lineage, rule of residence and household chores, their context of lineage, rule of residence and household chores, their participation in social and political activities, their legal status in terms of marriage, divorce and inheritance of property, seeking wealth care should be taken into consideration. Empowerment in terms of knowledge and awareness of ones own life and society including legal raise their status with regarded to the lives. While empowerment deals with her or his expectation arising out of the situation. Similarly, a role deals with duties and obligations wile empowerment deals with rights. For instance, it is commonly assumed that the most is a woman, a wife a cook, a teacher of her children and daughter-in-law and so on.
Introduction
Women constitute almost 50% of the world’s population. As per as their social status is concerned, they are not treated as equal to men in all the places, through in the western countries women are treated on par with men in most of the fields, their counterpart in the east suffers from many disabilities. The disabilities on the one hand and the inequalities between men and women on the other, have given rise to what is known “Gender problem”. All one the world and particularly in South and East Asia and Africa the gender problem has assumed importance during the recent years the gender issue has become virtually a crucial point of argument. It is now widely believed that empowerment of women i.e., providing equal rights, opportunities and responsibilities to women, will go a long way in removing the existing gender discrimination. Women empowerment in contemporary Indian society in forms of their work, education, health and media images in the forms of their work, education, health and media images in the context of lineage, rule of residence and household chores, their context of lineage, rule of residence and household chores, their participation in social and political activities, their legal status in terms of marriage, divorce and inheritance of property, seeking wealth care should be taken into consideration. Empowerment in terms of knowledge and awareness of ones own life and society including legal raise their status with regarded to the lives.
Meaning
Before thinking about the empowerment of women, one needs to understand the exact meaning of the word empowerment. According to Cambridge English Dictionary empowerment means “to authorize”. In the context of the people they have to be authorized to have control over their lives. When applied in the context of development the particular segment of population, the poor, the women, the vulnerable, the weak, the oppressed and the discriminated have to be “empowered” to have control over their lives to better their socioeconomic and political conditions,. But the questions raised are, who empowers them and how to empower them? Ideally speaking no one empowers any one, the best way us ’self empowerment’, by the segments of population mentioned above are handicapped both structurally and culturally to empower themselves without any outside help and affirmative action by the State and others. But still as long as these segments of population does not make any effort at self employment. It would be long and arduous task and process for the outsiders to empower them.
Role of women in development process
The principal of gender equality was recognized in the United Nations Charter in 1945 and the UN Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, the majority of development planners did not fully address the role of women in development process. In 1975, the first UN Conference of Women and Development was held
at maxico city under the motto, “Equality, Development and peace”. The need to integrate women into development was internationally proclaimed in the 1995 Bejing Conference. The Economic Survey (1999-2000) used an entire section on
gender inequality. It began with a reminder of the commitment made in the ninth plan document of allocating 30 per cent of resources for women’s development schemes through “Women’s Component Plans”. According to Menon and Probhu (2001), there was a strong plea for investing in women’s equality on the ground that this made economic sense and spoke of “the social rate of return on investment in women” being greater that the corresponding rate for men. According to Paten (2002), women’s development can be attained by improving here status and bargaining power in the economy.
Sushma Sachay (1998) argues that approaches and strategic for women
empowerment could be possible by outlining the mechanisms and tools that till
influence for women empowerment. Decisions making process, multidimensional
process that are enable worn to realize their full identity and powers in all walks
of life.
Concept of Women Empowerment
Empowering may be understood as enabling people, especially women to acquire and possess power resources, in order to make decision on their own or resist decisions that are made by others that affect them. A person may said to be powerful when he/she has control over a large portion of power resources in society. The extent of possession of various resources such as personal wealth, such as land skills, education, information, knowledge, social status, position held, leadership trains, capabilities of mobilization.
The National Policy on Education (1986) suggested certain strategies to empower women. Accordingly, women become empowered through collective reflections and decision making enable them to become agency of social change.
The global conference on Women Empowerment (1988), highlighted empowerment as the best way of making own partners in development the development of women and children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) program was initiated as a sub scheme of the national wide poverty alleviation program i.e., the Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP). It aims at imparting self reliance to rural areas through income generating skill s along with group organization skills. Keeping this in view the year 2001 was celebrated as “The Women’s Empowerment Year”. Human resource development and empowerment of women unlock the door for modernization of society,. Instated of remaining as passive beneficiaries, women must become active partner. Participation and control over resources of power are considered as the critical indicators in the process of development discharged women especially in rural areas, possess the least proportion of these resources and as a result they are powerless and dependent on the powerful and wealthy.
Role and Empowerment
We will now realize the vital importance of the terms such as role, empowerment and function for an understanding of society. These terms tell us how individual and groups organize themselves as well as relate to each other. Very simple, role tells us about what is expected from individuals in a particular situation. While empowerment deals with her or his expectation arising out of the situation. Similarly, a role deals with duties and obligations wile empowerment deals with rights. For instance, it is commonly assumed that the most is a women, a wife a cook, a teacher of her children and daughter-in-law and so on. What happens when the mother is also the principal of the local village school? Not only does she have to deal with a range of roles and empowerments, but also with he tensions that may raise out of her ole s mother and her role as an administrator.
“Woman reposes more closely on the central surface of life, while man hunts it in the boundaries of existence, always concerned to overcome, and in the last analysis, to kill. A woman has a secret alliance with eternal life and man with the principle of death. Woman wants to embrace the contradiction of life and to reconcile them in the act of degree so. Man on the other hand release the tension between opposites by annihilating one of the sides, the one he finds unpleasant. He seeks the solution not in love and reconciliation, but in over coming and annihilation. He has a militant and not an erotic manner. The male principle borne of isolation, makes solitude thermal, seeks being in itself and disturbs life as a wholes his being is battle and self service, his willto- life is concerned with ascertaining his own person or overthrowing that of the stranger until the motive of salvation kindles with in him. Woman with her sustaining constitutions is at one and is harmony with the basis of the world. But man wants to change the world to bring it forward to overcome it”.
Women’s Empowerment in Contemporary India
Contemporary Indian society has been exposed to the broad processes of social transformation, agricultural modernization and economic development, urbanization and globalization. However, these processes have generated regional imbalances, sharpened class inequalities and augmented the gender disparities. Hence, women have become critical symbols of these growing imbalances. All these have affected adversely the various aspects of women’s empowerment in the contemporary Indian society. The family and women’s work is not enough to say that any society consists of men and women. It is equally important to look at how the two groups of people interact, as well as at the role and exceptions each group has of the other. Such roles and exceptions are a product of the stereotypes of each gender. By gender stereotype we mean attributes and qualities commonly associated with a gender. Thus, the first idea on gender role differences, which a child acquires, is that of women of one’s family marrying and leaving their homes to leave with different groups of people. Secondly, men appear to exercise far greater influence in decision making and are far more visible and audible than their wives. Third most of the tasks within the home are done by the mother, grandmother, sisters and so on. At meal times they carry food to the fields for the men. All these tasks, which consume time and energy, are not counted as work and there is no payment involved. In western countries, women’s groups, politicians and other concerned individuals have been arguing for payment for house work and childcare. In India, the question of payment for household jobs has not really been an important issue or demand. As we shall see, there are many other issues, which require urgent attention. At the same time, it is important for us to remember that non-payment should not also mean non-recognition. The fact that women are expected to perform all these tasks as a part of their conventional roles and on special merit is awarded to them for these tiring and tiresome jobs.
Women’s work participation
As per to 1981 figures 19.7 per cent Indian women were recorded as paid workers. Of whom over 87 per cent were in the unrecognized or informal sector of the economy. The work participation rate woman in 1991and 2001 was 22.3 and 25.7 per cent respectively. The increase in the work participation of women during the decade 1991-2001 is mainly due to the increase in the proportion of marginal workers (6.3 per cent to 11 per cent) in total female work force. It is held
by many observation of Indian economy that without women’s paid or unpaid labour the Indian agricultural economy would not be able to function. In the informal sector, there is no legal redressal for problems; no maternity or other leave benefits and little security of service. Working long hours as domestic servants, stitching clothes for the garment export industry, working on the assembly line of small electronics manufacturing units or the beedi, tobacco, cashew nut factories. A woman lives in fear of retrenchment, exploitation and low
wages.
Women’s Self-perception
According to Maithreyi Krishna Raj that though women were concerned about continuing their jobs, they were not looking for better prospects nor have they begun with a long-range carrier strategy. Once in a job, women rarely attempted to acquire further qualifications was by no means clear-cut. T.S. Papola’s study of workingwomen, which covered a range from those in supervisory post in industrial establishments to unskilled workers, showed that women were more different than men in respect of their promotion prospects.
Employer’s Attitude
Papol’s study showed that women were discriminated against at the time of promotions tended to be crowded into lower status electrical and primary school jobs. They were rarely promoted to executive and supervisory posts. As regards employment and promotion to supervisory category, male employers defend themselves by pointing out that women did not come forth to be recruited or promoted.
Traditional Positions of Authority in Urban Areas
In the urban areas, the working class, and men in particular have a wide range of job options available to them. The study by Leela Kasturi shows that when unemployed weavers from Tamil Nadu migrant to Delhi, the women folk found jobs only as domestic servants. While men become mechanics, cooks or drivers. The shift in residence meant a severance with an established way of life and the support of the extended family.
Working Conditions
For the majority of working class women, a job is essential. In relation to the limited chances for occupational mobility, when men and women work in the same occupation, female tasks are often the more arduous and time consuming. For instance, in paddy cultivation they spend long hours in sowing, weeding transplanting. In Kerala the extraction of the cashew seed from a corrosive liquid is women’s work. Again when both sexes do identical jobs, women often get paid
less than man. Protests are rare, apart from ignorance of legal and other rights; there is a fear of exploitation and sexual harassment by the landlord or contractor.
Traditional Role Expectations
Irrespective of social class there is at the level of belief, widespread commitment to the nation that a women’s job just not interfere or compete with her primary role of wife and mother. There is also concern with her physical safety and the respectability of the occupation. Clearly, working class familiar are far less able to ensure circumstances. NGO’s SHGs have been working to promote women more viable towards social, political, economic and cultural development micro finance is a significant factor and accessible to small and micro enterprises, socio-economic progress of poor women. Education and training also plays a major role in changing the life of poor women. The several institutions have been extending all types of vocational training, income generating activities and self-employment activities for poor women.
Empowerment of women is mainly related to their participation in decision making with regard to raising and distribution of resources i.e., income, investments and expenditures at all levels. Even though the Government of Karnataka has formulated and implemented various schemes of the social economic and overall development of the rural women, when the present position
of women is taken into account these schemes do not appear effective in enhancing the confidence and capability of the women. Empowering the poor women in rural areas to sustain their surrounding ecology is a necessity not only to stoop the ecological degradation but also for the physical survival of poor people. Almost every village in India has what is called “Common Property Resources (CDPs). Common Property Resources can be defined as “those resources, which are exploited by all people in the village free of cost by expending their labour.
References:
1. Chiranjeevulu, T. (2003). Empowering Women through Self-Help Groups – Experiences in Experiment, Kurukshetra, March.
2. Gopalan, Sarala (2002). Towards Equality – The Unfinished Agenda. Status of Women in India, National Commission for Women, New Delhi.
3. Kapadia, Karin (2002). The Violence of Development: The Politics of Identity, Gender and Social Inequalities in India. Kali for Women, New Delhi.
4. Krishnaraj, Maithreyi (2002). Growth and Rural Poverty. Economic and Political Weekly, September 21.
5. Manohar, Sujatha (2002). Women’s Empowerment – Law and Gender Justice. Paper Presented in the International Women’s Day, 8th March 2001. Department of Women and Child Development, New Delhi.
6. Sarkar, C.R. (2004). Poverty, Education and Economic Development.
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Help answer the question
What motivations do women have to critique feminism?
Men are doing it because they "hate women" according to the local feminists here, so I was just wondering why some women do it and say some of the same things we do.
There are many women that critique feminism and some of them are gaining popularity and exposure. Among them are Christina Hoff Summers, Carrie Lukas, and Wendy McElroy.
When you read the works of the afore mentioned women you get a sense that they are truly interested in equality and the organizations they represent are indeed egalitarian movements.
Some women here deny that feminism has the capability to be anything other than a wondrous "happy place."
So men critique feminism because they hate women apparently. Do women also hate women when they critique feminism?
women
Nigerian Women Agro-entrepreneurship Development: Issues and Challenges
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Introduction
Suleiman (2006) defined entrepreneurship as “the willingness and ability of an individual to seek for investment opportunities to establish and run an enterprise successfully” while Drucker viewed an entrepreneur as a person who perceives business opportunities and takes advantage of the scarce resources and uses them profitably. Entrepreneurs are job creators and/or become self-employed rather than seekers of jobs in an overstretched public service. Using USA standard, a woman-owned enterprise is a small enterprise that is at least 51% owned, managed and operated by one or more women.
A small-scale farming is a farm holding established on a land area of not less than 5 hectares. In Nigeria, most of the small-scale farming enterprises are owned by men. This does not imply that Nigerian women agriculturists are not desirous of expanding their businesses due to so many challenges which border on gender issues, economic or socio-cultural barriers as well as government unfavourable policies. This paper, a purely descriptive research, employs secondary data to expound on the issues and challenges confronting the development of the Nigerian women to full blown agro- entrepreneurs for national economic advancement. The rest of the discussion in this paper is organized along the following issues;
* Women’s potentials in entrepreneurial skills.
* Why women entrepreneurship development?
* Policy Framework for Women Entrepreneurship Development.
* Challenges faced by women agro-entrepreneurs.
* Strategies for development of women agro-entrepreneurs.
* Conclusion.
Women’s Potentials in Entrepreneurial Skills
Women in general are naturally endowed with some exceptional abilities, which if properly harnessed for entrepreneurship purpose, could result in positive and enviable results. Women by nature;
v Have creative abilities
v Are blessed with ability to persist and pursue their desires
v Are good and patient nurtures of children, and this tenacity is usually transferred into business
v Are good innovators
v Have ability to develop passion for what they believe in
Waton (undated) cited in Okara (2005) identified the basic requirements of an entrepreneur to include: hardwork, teamwork, commitment, appreciation, listening, high expectations, setting achievable goals. Women, by nature and exposure to family relationships, possess most of these qualities that are essential and can be enhanced for entrepreneurial success.
Why Women Entrepreneurship Development?
Many researchers have shown that poverty is a malady that incapacitates its victim economically and indirectly subject him/her to a state of destitution, voicelessness, powerlessness and even violence (World Bank 2000; Okojie, 2002) Unfortunately, the most affected sex by the above incapacitation are women and children. Statistics show that women are poorer than men. The UNDP (1995) estimated that, about 60% of the world-poors, are women. Women are poorer because they are more vulnerable economically.
The findings of Thane (1978), Showalter (1987) and Lewis and Piachered (1987) cited in Magaji (2004) showed that women have been the poor sex throughout the 20th Century and have formed a substantial majority of the poor since poverty was first recognized. On why women are the poorest sex, the physical strength of women and various challenges limit them to specific soft duties making it difficult to be enterprising. Entrepreneurship development therefore is a crucial tool for women’s economic empowerment.
The benefits derivable from empowering the women folk are far reaching, starting with family advancement and eventually touching on the national and global economic advancement. According to the Nigerian Minister of Women Affairs and Social Development, Hajiya H. S. Bungudu, the latest Nigerian census revealed that women constitute 49.9% of the nation’s population; the underrepresentation of women (2%) in the nation’s development processes in finance, business and investment fronts renders 40% of the population inadequately positioned to contribute to the economic growth of the country. It is the nation that blends the strengths of women and men that will lead the world in development (Kiyosaki 1993) in the field of agriculture and other sectors.
Entrepreneurship or investing is not an exclusive reserve of any gender. Both women and men generate the same result provided they follow the principles of investment. Kiyosaki (1993) proves with statistical data in United States, that women are better investors than men. A year 2000 National Association of Investors Corporation (NAIC) study found that women-only clubs achieved average annual returns of 32% since 1951 versus 23% for men-only investment clubs. The verdict is; women know how to handle money and can be greater entrepreneurs than men if the various obstacles to development is removed or minimized.
Policy Framework for Women Entrepreneurship Development
There are neither policies nor strategies for entrepreneurship development that is specifically tailored to women (Olutunla, 2008). The Nigerian government’s policy of promoting entrepreneurship dated back to the early 1970s. The hope of promoting small scale enterprises to stimulate entrepreneurship was documented in the 2nd National Development Plan (1970-74). This policy continued in the 3rd (1975-80) and the 4th National Development Plan through various strategies of technical, financial and management of the small scale industries. The Federal Government’s concern for the menacing problem of mass unemployment in the mid-1980s spurred the setting up of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) in 1986 and the Work For Yourself Programme (WFYP) in 1987. Both were essentially joint programmes of training and financial support to entrepreneurs. The NDE operations included three core programmes (i) Youth Employment and Vocational Skills Development Program (YEVSDP) (ii) agricultural programs (iii) the small scale industries and graduate employment scheme. The NDE, though starved of fund for some time, has achieved a lot in promoting employment, create wealth and alleviating women poverty. The Better Life for Rural Women Programme (BLRWP) initiative of a first lady of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Maryam Babangida, was an entrepreneurship development programme specifically for promoting education, health and economic development of women. It made unprecedented contribution to women through the cooperative organizations. The spirit of BLRWP is still operating today through the subsequent first ladies. A number of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) also came up to promote entrepreneurship development. Prominent amongst them was the Country Women Association of Nigeria (COWAN) which contributed immensely towards women entrepreneurship development through organization of many cooperatives and micro-credit schemes and in partnership with the United Nations.
The Role of Women in Agriculture
A significant amount of work has been carried out in developing countries on the potential of women in boosting food production. Boserup (1970) described Black Africa as the region of female farming par excellence. FAO (1982) estimated that the rural women contribute two-third of all the time that is put into traditional agriculture in Africa. Accat (1983) also pointed out that 80% of African women are engaged in agriculture. Patel and Antonio (1973) reported that 95% of the Yoruba women of the Southwestern Nigeria are engaged in farm works, growing yams, maize, tobacco and cassava, poultry and fish farming. They also participate in bush clearing, land preparation and weeding. In addition to their role in production, they are actively engaged in harvesting, processing and marketing of farm produce. The participation of Igbo men in nonfarm activities and waged employment has resulted in an increased workload for women in food crop production as well as a breakdown of the gender division of labor in agriculture. Igbo women now undertake some of the conventional male agricultural tasks in addition to those in the female domain (Ezumah and Di Domenico, 1995). The predominance of women in the small-scale fisheries post-harvest activities: micro-fish retailing, fish processing, fish distribution and marketing, make women the major players in the socio-economic development of the West African countries.
Despite women’s extensive and varied participation in agriculture, they continue to have less access to credit and modern agriculture inputs. Consequently, their farm works is labor-intensive, yields meager economic returns (Buvinie and Mehra, 1990) and operate mostly at subsistence level. International Labour Organization (ILO 2003) quoted in Akpera and Sunday (2008) reported that Nigerian and African women entrepreneurs in general are in the micro enterprise sector and almost invisible in the small and medium enterprise categories.
The Challenges of Nigerian Women Agro-Entrepreneurs
Some of the many obstacles that hinder women enterprise development, agribusiness growth and improved income earnings include;
1) Finance
The greatest challenge for Nigerian women in agribusiness is lack of finance. Women in agribusiness need substantial finance both for start-up and expansion. Finance could be in form of equity or from external sources. Equity from informal sources includes personal savings, friends and relatives, traditional (esusu), professional and age-group associations as well as formal co-operative societies.
External finance is majorly from banks (specialized, development, commercial, etc), government agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), international donors, etc. Entrepreneurs are expected to provide, in some cases, 25% of fund applied for and/or produce collaterals before accessing these external finances. It has been difficult for women to raise equity for own business because most women interested or engaged in farming earn low income. Many of the commercial or development banks are reluctant to grant agricultural loans due generally to the high agricultural risk factor or because they do not have competent assessors as in the case of fish farming. The high interest rate charged as well as the demand for collateral of landed property or other assets also compound the issue.
Currently, the Microfinance banks (MFB) are the government’s latest major organ of policy for entrepreneurship finance in Nigeria. In an ongoing research conducted recently, it was discovered that male to female application and approval by MFB are in the ratio 65% to 35%. This discrepancy was linked to women entrepreneurs approaching banks on an individual basis and lack of soundly written business plan and/or feasibility studies (Olutunla, 2008).
2) Manpower and Education
The whole business be- it agricultural or any other, revolves around the entrepreneur (visionary) as she combines all other human, financial and material resources to create an enterprise of value. The chief executive of the business outfit must be knowledgeable to effectively mobilize resources to advantage. Agribusiness at small or medium scale is highly professional, technologically driven and require some level of education. Education not only provides basic knowledge and skills to improve health and Iivelihood, but it empowers women to take their rightful place in society and the development process (Fasokun 2000).
Entrepreneurial education seems to be the major key policy to promote entrepreneurship development for women in Nigeria. Entrepreneurship education should be inculcated into school curriculum at all levels. Research indicates that Small and Medium Enterprise Industrial Empowerment Scheme (SMEIES) operators ranked the reasons for failure of entrepreneurs’ application for loans and came up with reasons that range from bad feasibility studies, poor management skills, lack of proper accounting, poor character checks and attitudes among others. All these are challenges that can be remedied by entrepreneurship education. Even as the 93 approved Nigerian universities have adopted entrepreneurial studies, funds and the dearth of teachers to train the students has remained an obstacle.
A number of current training centers/programs are urban-based, for example, the Industrial Development Centers established in the 1960s are urban-based. Small Medium Entrepreneurial Development Agency of Nigeria (SMEDAN) aimed at facilitating credit, technology markets, capacity building, training and technical support for SMEs and provide adequate linkage with women bodies is urban-based and starved of funds. Agribusiness is rural-based and better educated farmers are more likely to adopt new technologies and have access to credit and extension services (Adereti, 2000).
3) Technology
Many women, due to lack of exposure and financial limitations, still make use of old technology in farming, processing and preservation thus leading to drudgery and low output.
4) Cultural Restrictions/Weak Land Rights:
The Nigerian culture cannot be described as being gender friendly. For example, the “Kule” policy in the North where married women are forbidden from going out of the house in daylight for business is an initiative/development-killer policy that should be discouraged in this 21st Century. In Sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria, where women have prime responsibility for food production, they are generally limited to user rights to land and subject to the consent of a male relative (FAO, 1982). Culture and social practices discriminate against women to be enterprise successors/inheritors or own independent assets which could easily serve as collaterals. Such unequal land rights are reflected in the smaller land sizes of women farmers thus limiting them economically.
5) Lack of Equipment and Appropriate Technology
Despite women’s extensive and varied participation in agriculture, they continue to have less access to modern agriculture inputs. Consequently, women agro-entrepreneurs work under very difficult and laborious conditions, using crude traditional technology. Technology is closely related to finance and education. Nigerian women entrepreneurs, especially in agriculture, work under very difficult and laborious conditions, using crude traditional technology. There is urgent need for provision of modern, cost effective and affordable technologies for the use of women.
Moreover, some new technology has often been inappropriate to women’s needs. There is a need to define some priority actions to promote the role of women in the economy because it has been showed that women are productive and efficient when they have access to the right technologies and opportunities.
6) Erroneous Ideas about Women and Credit
There are certain myths about women in respect to credit which have made them to remain poor and limited their entrepreneurial prospects. One of such myths is that poor women make poor credit risks. This is being proved wrong as Olutunla (2008) reported that Nigerian women have been found to be more faithful in terms of loan repayment to Banks than men.
7) Entrepreneurial Attitude
According to Akpa (2007), an average entrepreneur is rugged and aggressive. These are common attributes of men while most women are of the gentle and kind disposition. Men tend to focus on gettingthe job done while women tend to focus on being more inclusive and relational. If a woman entrepreneur is to succeed, she must adopt some level of ruggedness and aggressiveness. Success is not gender-friendly.
8) Research and Extension Services
For a long time, agronomic researchers do not pay attention to the role of women in the farming system. Research into the activities of women in agriculture is gaining attention only recently. A survey in Ogun State, Nigeria (Elabor-Idemudia, 1991) and Osun State, Nigeria (Ogbimi and Williams, 1999) revealed that Extension Agents visited between 7-10% of women farmers every week compared to 70% of the male farmers who received weekly visits. An FAO (1989) study found government investment on agriculture represented less than half the sector’s contribution to national income, therefore, it is reasonable to guess that women’s access to extension services and training especially in the area of fish farming, processing, packaging, distribution and marketing are unlikely to improve when the overall funding and availability of services is declining.
9) Misplaced Focus
Many agricultural projects and programs are not suited to the special circumstances of women or may not reach women at all, thus truncating the intended effort to increase food production.
10) Market and Marketing
Due to lack of good roads in Nigeria, electricity, poor access to information and poor networking, many farm produce perish thus discouraging women farmers.
Strategies for Women Agro-Entrepreneurship Development
* The complementary policy issues in entrepreneurship education should include increasing women enrolment in schools at all levels especially in the field of agriculture to reduce gender inequality. Budgetary allocation should be made to accommodate more continuing and vocational education.
* More seminars/workshops should be sponsored and extended to rural areas to increase women’s capacity to start and grow their agribusiness, prepare sound business plan/feasibility studies and increase their technical and managerial capacity in agribusiness.
* Modern processing plants/storage facilities should be installed for women groups on government/private joint partnership basis so that women can process and store their farm produce with ease.
* The enabling environment in terms of gender-friendly policies, good roads, pipe-borne water and electricity should be provided by the various arms of government.
* Cooperatives and women groups should be more formally instituted and encouraged among women to position them strategically to access fund and other inputs with ease.
* The Government should mandate the commercial Banks to produce more gender-friendly loan packages (low interest rates and more relaxed duration of repayment).
* Women should be exposed to the latest agro-technology from time to time to remove drudgery in farming, processing and preservation techniques.
* Nigerian women should be encouraged to network more, both at the national and international levels for more exposure, to access fund and export information.
* Agro-extension institutions should be boosted and more women extension agents be trained to reduce women to extension workers ratio and for wider coverage of women agriculturists.
Conclusion
Nigeria’s vision of becoming one of the top twenty leading economies of the world by the year 2020, otherwise known simply as vision 20:20 appears compelling enough to energize its over 150 million people (nearly half of which are women) to make the vision a reality. To accomplish this laudable goal, there is urgent need to pay attention to the development of agro-women entrepreneurs so that they can take their place in family advancement and national economic development. The government and development/change agencies must not only be prepared to recognize the economic role of the women but must also extend to them the same recognition and facilities as the men are enjoying.
REFERENCES
Accat, E.C. (1983): “Women’s Role in Horticultural Production in Developing Countries” A Paper presented at F.A.O. Expert Consultation on Women in Food Production. Rome, Italy. 7-14 December, pp. 3-7.
Adereti F.O. (2000): Poverty Alleviating Strategies for Rural Women in Osun State. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan , pp.36-37.
Akpa A. (2007): Challenges of the Nigerian entrepreneur in the twenty-first century. A paper presented at the maiden Annual College of Management Sciences Seminar, University of Mkar. 10p
Akpera D.M. and Sunday M. (2008): Strategies for the development of entrepreneurs in Nigeria. A paper presented at the 3-day International workshop on “Promoting Entrepreneurship Education Among Nigeria women: Issues and Approaches” Abuja 12p
Boserup, E. (1970): Women’s Role in Economic Development. St. Martino Press New York, George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Buvinie, M. and Mehra, R. (1990): Women in Agriculture: What Development can do. ICRW (International Centre for Research on Women) Pp. 3-5.
Elabor-Idemudia, P. (1991): Impact of Structural Adjustment Programs on Women and their Household
in Bendel and Ogun States, Nigeria. In: Structural Adjustment and West African Women Farmers, Christina H. Gladwin (ed.), Gainesville, University of Florida, p128-150
Ezumah N. N. and Di Domenico C. M. (1995):Enhancing the role of women in crop production: A case study of Igbo women in Nigeria. World Development, 23(10), p1731-1744.
References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article.
Fasokun, T.O. (200-): The role of education in poverty eradication. In “Education for the Millennium Development” Vol.1 Eds; M. Boucouvalas and R. Aderinoye. Spectrum Books Ltd., Ibadan pg.459-475
Food and Agricultural Organization (1982): Role of Women in Agricultural Production. FAO, Rome pg.5
Food and Agricultural Organization (1989): Effects of Stabilization and Structural Adjustment
Programmes on Food Security. Committee on World Food Security, Fourteenth Session, Rome, Italy, 3-7 April 1987.
Kiyosaki, T.R. (1993):If you want to be Rich and Happy, Don’t Go to School (Fair field: Aslan publishing)
Ogbimi G. E. and and Williams S. B. (1999): Gender Sensitivity and Marginalized Group: Assessment
of Availability of Productive Assets to Women in Agricultural Development. Unpublished Paper. 14p.
Okojie, C.E.E. (2002): “Globalization and the Women’s Enterprises; Opportunity and Challenges“. UNIFEM Women Entrepreneurs Forum. Lagos
Olutunla G.T. (2008): Policy Framework and Strategy for Entrepreneurship Development of Nigerian Women. A paper presented at the 3-day International workshop on “Promoting Entrepreneurship Education Amongst Nigerian Women: Issues and Approaches” Abuja. 15p
Magaji, S. (2004): “Introduction to Project Evaluation“. Sanitex Press. Abuja
Patel, A.U. and Anthonio, Q.B.O. (1973): “Farmers’ Wives in Agricultural Development: The Nigerian Case” Paper presented at XV International Congress of Agricultural Economists. August 20-29, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Suleiman, A.S. (2006): The Business Entrepreneur; Entrepreneurial Development, Small and Medium Enterprises, 2nd Edition, Entrepreneurship Academy Publishing, Kaduna.
World Bank (2000): “Nigeria at a glance“. The World Bank, Washington D.C
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More at www.JayGrandin.com The simple truth about men’s bathroom habits vs women’s
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women>>>>???
how do women out there feel about porn, do they watch when were not around..or do they secretley download as much as us….let me in on some secrets..when is ok to incorporate into the relationship??
women
Womens Health Questions About Womens Health Problems
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Answers to womens health questions on womens health problems can help a woman better understand her health and how to improve it. Today, a woman must both attend to her career while taking care of family responsibilities. Before and after work, she is likely involved in meal preparation, seeing to the family’s needs along with doing the non-stop stream of household chores. It is easy to understand how women can become nearly exhausted and begin asking womens health questions and looking for answers.
And to make matters worse, there is so much health information available that is at the same time confusing and conflicting. Who to believe? Who is trying to sell me what? Even doctors are often promoting this and that product as the latest greatest solution to various maladies and womens health problems. Perhaps you find yourself asking questions such as these:
Womens Health Questions #1 – Are Bioidentical Hormones Different from Synthetic Drugs?
Yes, bioidentical hormones are very different from the synthetic drugs. The term “bioidentical” means that the hormone is exactly the same as what the body naturally makes. The body will treat a bioidentical hormone as if the body produced it naturally. When used in dosages similar to the body’s normal production, bioidentical hormone replacement therapy can provide health benefits without the side effects associated with non-natural or synthetic drugs. Synthetic hormones are not natural to the body – they are different from natural hormones so they can be patented and marketed by the drug companies.
Womens Health Questions #2 – Are There Really Any Best Vitamins for Women?
Absolutely! We all have what is referred to as dietary gaps, meaning, it is difficult to consume the necessary foods that provide needed nutrients every day. Who regularly eats the recommended 5-9 servings of vegetables and fruits each day? It is difficult for anyone to do and besides, the nutrient values found in foods today are lower than decades ago. Taking a high-quality, broad spectrum, anti-aging daily nutritional supplement formulated specifically for women helps fill in the dietary gaps that we all have.
Womens Health Questions #3 – Why Should I Be Using Natural Cleaning Products?
For sure! Since 1945, more than 80,000 synthetic chemicals have been invented, the majority derived from a petroleum base. When using home cleaning products that you pour out of a container, you receive exposure either through your skin or from the fumes that you breathe. And what is even much worse is when you spray the petroleum-based toxic cleaners into the air, doing so means you will be breathing the airborne chemical particles directly into your lungs which will contribute to various womens health problems! Natural cleaning products are easily available that are priced competitively and reduce exposure to the harsh chemicals found in regular household cleaners and sprays.
Womens Health Questions #4 – Why Do Uterine Fibroids Develop in Women?
Uterine fibroids are known as muscle tumors and in most cases are non-cancerous. They are a very common growth in the female genital tract. Fibroid growths afflict as many as 80% of American women in their 30’s to 50’s. One in four women will have complaints serious enough to seek medical treatment! The true causes of fibroids remain unknown, however, there are several factors that do seem to affect fibroid growths in women.
Womens Health Questions #5 – Where Can I Find Answers to More Questions About Health?
Online! Understand what are normal changes in the reproductive cycle and health and what changes and symptoms indicate hormonal imbalances brought on by poor nutrition, excessive stress and other lifestyle factors. Learn as much as you can about your health, the reasons for the womens health problems you may have and options available to you.
If you feel your health is not what it once was and want answers to your specific womens health questions, begin by understanding what is healthy and normal and what is not. How you feel and perform every day is an issue that is too important to leave unattended any longer.
Copyright 2007 InfoSearch Publishing
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Pregnancy and Postpartum Depression, Women’s Health Dr. McCarthy explains what happens to a womans body during pregnancy and after child birth and the effects this can have on a womans hormones, health, stress and wellness. Dr. Peter McCarthy, CTN Peter is the Chief Executive Officer and Wellness Director of Life Energy Holistic Partners, Inc. He is a Nationally Board Certified Traditional Naturopath and is a member of the Advisory Committee of the American Naturopathic Certification Board …
Help answer the question
What's the difference between an all women's health club/gym and a health club where both men and women?
My husband tells me that I should join a women's health club because the exercise equipment there is more suited for women's bodies. I don't believe him. I think the only difference is that men are not allowed to join at the women's club (like Curve's) while you'll find both women and men at the regular health clubs like Gold's gym, Bally's, Fitness Connection. Please someone confirm for me if there is any other difference. I also feel that if I join a women's only club, there will be less variety of equipment and less classes for me to participate in than if I join a regular health club/gym.
This is in the United States (Texas to be more precise).
women health
Beliefs and Practices in Women Health
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Beliefs and Practices in Women Health
* Ramaiah Bheenaveni *
Rural women’s health is an infinitely broad topic. Many Indian women have come from circumstances in which women have limited access to healthcare. Traditionally, there has been discrimination towards women in decision-making; access to resources such as food, education and health care; job opportunities; and in child-rearing and parenting. However, women’s health in rural areas affects everything in their environment from their families to their economies and vice versa. A woman’s health, especially among the poor and illiterate, is often neglected not just by her family but by the woman herself. She is taught not to complain and if she does then she is directed either to use condiments in the kitchen or try faith healing.
Man is unique in that he has a distinct cultural environment of his own. This includes all the conditions in which men are born, brought up, live, work, procreate and perish. Culture as an environment is deeply related to the health of humans. It includes patterns of social organizations designed to regulate a particular society; one can understand the behaviour of people belonging to various sections and predict how an individual of a particular section will react in a given situation. With our knowledge of health, the treatment of diseases among ignorant peoples appears to be strange since they frequently follow practices of praying, wearing of amulets or consulting an exorcist who recites certain verbal formula. Hence, we can say that beliefs and cultural practices are predominately playing significant roles in the human health more peculiarly in the health of women.
Many rural people did not know about the services set up for them at sub-centres and PHC by the government because they did not see any evidence of these services being provided for them. As a part of the awareness programmes, the health workers (ANM) have been organizing to several exposure trips at the villages. It was there that the women were informed about the specifics of various services supposed to be made available to them. This encouraged some of them to ask questions and report on the situation in their PHC. They explained that though a nurse did visit their village it was not a daily visit, nor did she go beyond a certain point in the village, and certainly did not take a round of the village. They made a show of doing their duty by providing nominal services.
A variety of factors, including an older population, a limited supply of health care providers, and further distances from health care resources may contribute to special health concerns for people in non-metropolitan areas. Access to health care and social services are critical issues for rural women.
Belief is the psychological state in which an individual is convinced of the truth of a proposition. Like the related concepts truth, knowledge, and wisdom, there is no precise definition of belief on which scholars agree, but rather numerous theories and continued debate about the nature of belief 1.
The cultural phenomenon of social organization, according to Giger and Davidhizar (2004), includes groups in the social environment that influence cultural development and identification. The family, an important aspect of the social organization phenomenon, strongly influences cultural behavior through a process of socialization or enculturation of children and group members (Giger & Davidhizar; Niska, 1999). These learned cultural behaviors guide individuals through life situations, events and health practices. Understanding family from a cultural perspective is a significant element in providing nursing care to Mexican-Americans since Giger and Davidhizar identify the family as being most values in this culture.
Environmental control is defined by Giger and Davidhizar (2004) as the ability of persons within a particular cultural heritage to plan activities that control their environment as well as their perception of one’s ability to direct factors in the environment. Kuipers’ (1999) discussion of this model, in relation to Mexican-American culture, emphasized the construct of environmental control with a focus on locus-of-control, health beliefs, and folk medicine. Locus-of-control explains the way in which individuals, within their cultural environment, perceive their ability to control what happens to them and to their health. Health may be viewed as being dependent on outside forces or their own actions (Bundek et al., 1993). Beliefs about health and illness, which are components of environmental control, affect health practices, use of health resources, and a person’s response to experiences of both health and illness (Giger & Davidhizer, 2004; Northam, 1996). A third component of environmental control, folk medicine, includes alternative therapies such as using herbs and teas or visiting a cultural folk healer.
Objectives:
1. Exploration of women beliefs on health, risk and their relationship to lifestyles;
2. Elicitation of their views across a range of health-related behaviours and practices, especially puberty, menstruation, pregnancy and child rearing, and assessment of the potential for the positive promotion of women health in these and other areas of her sexual health.
3. Identification of the sources of information and influences on the development of health beliefs amongst women, particularly with respect to common elements in attitudes to risk-taking across a number of health beliefs and practices.
4. To focus on what women themselves know and want to know, including the salience of health, and the relevance of health-related knowledge in their lives
Hypothesis:
1. There is a positive relationship between social beliefs and cultural practices of a given society
2. Positive relationship may be observed among the social beliefs and cultural practices and various other factors such as caste, religion, social and traditional customs in society
3. The explanation for the persistence of belief systems is that people remain committed to them, but for this commitment to last long, the belief system must be validated
Research Design:
A quantitative and qualitative study, building on our previous work in this area, concerning the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and practices of female children and young women to health, risk and lifestyles. A guiding methodological principle underpinning the study was the development of a sensitive research design for rather than on women: a study grounded not simply in what women know or need to know, but also in what they want to know and feel to be important in the context of their everyday lives. The methods enabling these principles to be taken forward are described below.
a) Area of the Study:
The Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh consists of ten districts namely Hyderabad, Ranagareddy, Mahabubnagar, Medak, Adilabad, Nizamabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, Nalgonda, and Khammam. From this region, the village Ramchandrapur in Koheda Mandal of Karimnagar district has been randomly selected as an area of the study.
b) Universe & Sampling:
According to 2001 census, the village Ramchandrapur has an approximate population of 1840 who from nearly 550 families. This village has a primary health centre (PHC), but lacks a major hospital within a range of 35 kms. And this village has been selected as universe for this study.
So for this study, the researcher adopted stratified-proportionate random method of sampling based on caste composition of the villagers and selected the respondents from the families mentioned in the habitation list of Ramchandrapur. This village population data was collected from Supraja Seva Samithi, a voluntary organization, which is working in the region for the last 10 years in the fields of health, education and environmental protection. The list consists of various caste grouping and from which proportionate stratified samples were selected. Then a list of about 181 respondents was prepared for data collection. Therefore, it is obvious that an attempt has been made to present a general picture of community data and on the basis of which, views and attitudes of the respondents were taken into consideration.
C) Tools of Data Collection:
As the research is qualitative and quantitative, non-participant observation and interview schedule was adopted for the collection of primary data. The aspects that will cover in the interview schedule were defined under two parts, one is for socio-economic and cultural status of respondents such as name, sex, age, social status, education, religion, income, nature and type of the house, etc. and the other for socio-cultural beliefs and practice patterns in health and the related treatment of the villagers.
D) Analysis and interpretation of data:
After arranging the collected data through tabulation and classification, they were analyzed and interpreted in the socio-cultural context so as to give a scientific basis to the study. Although statistical methods like frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviations, t-test, chi-squire and ANOVA have been used in the study, they were applied in a relevant way.
Findings:
Socio-Economic Profile:
During the field work, observed that 22 castes were appeared and most of the respondent belongs to the BC castes like Yadava, Gouda, Munnuru Kapu, Vishwa Brahmin, Mudiraj and a insignificant number of people belongs to services caste like Mangali, Chakali, Mera and so on. A considerable amount of people belongs to SC community i.e. Mala and Madigas. Only a few respondents belong to ST (Erukala) community. Out of the 181 respondents, 55 percent are male and 45 percent female,. This research is carried out with almost all the equal four fold age groups of respondents. Thus, it is noted that age group is scattered in this study. More number of respondents i.e. 91% belongs to Hindu religion and 5% are Muslim. Nearly 4% of the respondents belong to Christianity. It is also proved that common phenomena of religion composition in India.
In this village, a majority of the respondents i.e. 82 (45%) are illiterates. The next more number of respondents have studied up to primary and secondary level i.e. 24 (13%). There are 21 (12%) of the respondents can read and write. A significant number of respondents i.e. 18 (10%) claimed to have studied up to college level while the small number of people who have studied up to professional level, technical level and others stands at 7 (4%), 3 (2%) and 2 (1%) respectively. The findings reveal that more number of the respondents i.e. 55 (30.4%) are labourers and one-fourths of the respondents i.e. 45 (24.9%) are engaging in the farming. On the whole 38(21%) are continuing their caste occupation while 20 (11%) and 17 (9.4%) respondents are doing other occupation and brought up into the service sector respectively. Only a few of the respondents i.e. 6 (3.3%) are carrying out business.
It is also noted that a majority of the respondents i.e. 84.21% are living under the tiled houses and a significant number of the respondents i.e. 15.79% posses R.C.C houses. A substantial number of the BC community respondents i.e. 75% owned the tiled house and rest of them i.e. 14.29% have R.C.C. houses and 8.04% own asbestos roofed houses. Most of the SC respondents i.e. 91.49% are residing under the tiled houses while only 8.51% consist R.C.C. houses. Among the ST respondents, 33.33% have R.C.C., tiled house and thatched house equally. Regarding the income, less than 24% of the respondents earn Rs. 1501 – 2000 per month. Almost equal number i.e. 22.7 and 21.5 % of the respondents earn below Rs. 500 and between Rs. 1001 and 1500 respectively. A significant number of respondents i.e. 20 % obtaining monthly income is in the range of Rs. 501 – 1000 while only 12.7% claimed their income was over Rs. 2000.
This village consist very good fertile lands, There is just below half of the respondents i.e. 84 (46.4%) have not possess any land on their own. There are 35 (19.3%) of the respondents possess land between 1- 2.19 acres. A significant number of respondents i.e. 28 (15.5%) and 20 (11.04%) are having land between 2.20 – 4.39 acres and 5 – 9.39 acres respectively. A considerable number of respondents i.e. 14 (7.7%) are owned land 10 and above acres.
Social Dogmatism on Menstruation
Patriarchal societies have tended to control women by first announcing menarche (the onset of menstrual cycle in a young girl) to the world in an apparently celebratory fashion while thereafter attempting to control the implied fertility and sexual power by monthly rites of pollution, restriction and isolation of the menstruating woman.
The various names for menstruation or ‘periods’ point to its polluting quality. For instance in Telugu, it is called samurta or peddamanshi meaning attaining maturity. Menstrual blood is believed to be polluting. There are varying restrictions put on a girl due to this belief such as not touching people or hanging washed clothes out to dry; not touching certain flowering plants lest they die or not fruit; sleeping on a jute bag or woollen blanket away from others. A woman cannot touch her child during menstruation. If she has to, the child must first be unclothed completely or made to wear silken clothes. Visiting or touching images of gods, temples, religious scriptures is also prohibited. A fear is inculcated in the adolescent that she will sin if she breaks these taboos. Restrictions are also placed on diet. These pollution taboos result in many women getting an enforced rest for at least these three days of the month since they are barred from carrying out their normal activities.
Not only is menstrual blood supposed to be dirty, but evil too. A menstruating girl should not let her shadow fall on a child with measles lest the child turn blind. The used menstrual cloth also possesses an evil quality. If men see the cloth, dry or otherwise, they could go blind. If a cow were to swallow the cloth she would curse the girl with infertility. In villages in A.P., women do not throw their menstrual cloth-they either burn it or bury it.
There seem to be some similarities between Hindus and Muslims regarding the practice of some of these rituals. Among Muslims, the menstruating woman should not touch holy books lest they become impure. Converted Christians follow, although to a lesser degree, the rituals of their original castes. The taboos and rituals clearly devalue. Women’s reproductive powers. The notion of women being polluted and unclean can be ascribed to patriarchal control of women’s reproductive powers. While the woman fulfils a vital social role of giving birth to progeny through her biological reproductive capacity, she is, at the same time, isolated during menstruation.
Cultural Practices of Puberty
Most women do not know about the physiology of menstruation and therefore the first experience of menstruation is filled with fear, shame and disgust. In some areas such as in rural areas of A.P. the girl is sometimes told to dub three or four dots of menstrual blood or mustard oil on the wall and draw a line between the second and third or third and fourth; it is believed that she will finish her menstruation within two and a half or three and a half days in all subsequent periods.
Elaborate rituals are performed in south Indian states-as well as in many parts of north India-at the onset of menstruation. The onset of puberty is traditionally viewed in terms of the girl’s emergent sexuality and prospective motherhood. The pubescent girl is given an elaborate ritual bath, after a massage with turmeric and vermillion. The Mudiraj communities in A.P. isolate the pubescent girl for 21 days within the house, away from the male gaze. The room in which she is secluded is separated with an iron rod and a fire is kept constantly burning during this period. Fire signifies purity and also keeps away daiyyam or witches and evil spirits. The girl is polluted and hence prohibited from touching people and other people are not allowed to touch her. In case of default, a bath is essential for ritual purification.
The Impact of the Food Habits on Women Health:
Although women are more or less marginalized and neglected in relation to the quality and quantity of food, certain occasions in a woman’s life are celebrated with the offering of a variety of nutritious foods specially prepared for her. Almost every community has the practice of feeding a girl on her first menstruation with delicious and nutritive foods, with the time of seclusion for the period ranging between nine to 21 days. In parts of A.P., sweets made of jaggery, groundnuts, sesame, fenugreek, wheat flour and sorgum are given to the girl. Menstruation for the first time in the house of one’s in-laws is also considered very auspicious in all regions of A.P. and is celebrated with gaiety.. The idea seems to be to give the girl ‘rich’, that is, strength-giving foods as well as both ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ foods.
Certain ‘hot’ foods (like jaggery) and ‘cold’ foods (like tamarind and lemons) are taboo as it is believed that the girl will suffer from menstrual pain. ‘Hot’ foods may cause heavy bleeding and ‘cold’ foods may cause severe menstrual pain. Special foods are understood to compensate for the loss of blood, regularise the menstrual cycle and flow, strengthen her reproductive organs and generally contribute to her fertility.
Work Prohibition of Pregnant Women:
It is also observed during the fieldwork that almost all the respondents have revealed that prohibition of work is compulsory while a women pregnancy but this notion is varies to one community to another. The higher social status communities are not allowed to perform the works even domestic works also from the early months to after late months of maternity. Whereas weaker section women perform the daily domestic actives some of them perform field activates but it is only in the early months. They should also take rest in the late months of pregnancy and early months of maternity.
Encourage and Disencourage Food Items During the Pregnancy of Women:
During pregnancy and lactation, many traditional communities across the country restrict a woman’s food intake. It is believed that if a pregnant woman eats too much, the foetus will not have room to move. The abdomen is supposed to contain both the food and the foetus and the latter’s space needs should be given greater priority. Another reason for controlling a pregnant woman’s food consumption is perhaps that excess weight would reduce the productivity of her work in the fields and around the house. A widely prevalent practice all over India is shrimanta. In the seventh month of pregnancy special rituals are performed and different types of sweets are prepared and given to the parents-to-be. The purpose is to give moral support and encouragement to the pregnant woman and celebrate her achievement of having reached near full-term. The sweets are generally made of wheat flour, jaggery, ghee, fenugreek and dry fruits. In the final stages of pregnancy, the pregnant woman is supposed to cat these foods custom every day. This is a good custom because it provides the calories and protein needed for the rapidly growing foetus in the last trimester of pregnancy.
Food Items Encourage % Disencourage %
1.Milk 173 95.5 8 4.4
2.Green leafs 148 81.7 33 18.2
3.Toddy 80 44.1 101 55.8
4.Non-Veg 132 72.9 49 27
5.Papaya — — 181 100
6.Potato 49 27 132 72.9
7.Brinjal 50 27.6 131 72.3
The above table explains the villager’s perceptions on encourage and disencourage food items during the pregnancy of women. The data shows that there are 173 (95.5%) of the respondents have stated that they are encouraging milk and its related food items and only insignificant number of respondents i.e.8 (4.4%) are not encouraging the food items of milk. As many as 148 (81.7%) of them revealed that they are encouraging green leafs and rest of the significant number of respondents i.e. 33 (18.2%) are not interested to give the green leafs to the pregnants. Interestingly the data depicts that more than half of the respondents i.e. 101 (55.8%) have said that they are encouraging toddy and 80 (44.1%) of them are not giving taking toddy. A substantial number of the respondents i.e. 132 (72.9%) have expressed that they are encouraging the consummation of non-vegetarian foods like mutton, chicken and egg. The total number of respondents is practicing the prohibition of papaya consummation during the pregnancy. All most all equal number of respondents i.e. 49 (27%) and 50 (27.6%) have revealed that Potato and Brinjal are encouraged food items and as similar 132 (72.9%) and 131 (72.3%) of them are not encouraging the food items of Potato and Brinjal.
The data regarding Caring of Pregnant Women among the Villagers clarifies the pursuance of the opinion of several communities respondents such as Yadava 14 (7.7%), Gouda 3 (1.7%), Munurukapu 11 (6.1%), Oddera 6 (3.3%), Vishwa Brahmin 5 (2.8%), Mala 25 (13.8%), Madiga 21 (11.6%), Padmashali 7 (3.9%), each 3 (1.7%) of Mangali, Dudekula and Erukala, Kumari 2 (1.1%) and each 1 (0.6%) of Pusala, Mera, Chindi and Dakkali have stated that family and their kins are taking care of their pregnant women. In this category the total numbers of SC and ST communities are appeared because of less financial status and peer group pressure. A majority number of working caste like Yadava, Munnurukapu, Oddera, Padmashali, Dudekula and Kummari are appeared. However, these communities’ people are visiting either government or private hospital for check up their health conditions during early pregnant hood as well as before delivery. One more interesting thing that the caste Mangali itself is traditional birth attendant community in this village so we may consider them in response to this query that they are taking care about pregnant as a traditional birth attendant and as a family. On the whole 3 (1.7 %) of Yadava, 2 (1.1 %) Gouda, 1 (0.6 %) of Munnurukapu and Kummari, 8 (4.4 %) of Chakali, 5 (2.7%) of Dudekula and the total number of Mudiraj 7 (4%) community respondent have expressed that traditional birth attendant are taking care about pregnant of their communities. It is important to note that previous these caste people took care about pregnant but at presently they are seeking the help of traditional birth attendant by reason of saving of time. These kind of villagers always busy in their routine work if they involve in the caring process they should be lost more time in order to money also. The data also describes that all most all the respondents of Deshmukh 3 (1.6%), Vysya 4 (2.2%) and Vaisnava 5 (2.7%) communities have revealed that health workers or ANMs are looking after the pregnant women. It may due to the higher awareness regarding health and personal bias or prejudices of health workers or ANMs who are interested to associate with the higher social status communities.
On account of preferable birthplace; the responses of majority respondents i.e. 112 (62%) is that birth at the traditional birth attendant is more preferable. As many as number of respondent i.e. 36 (20%) have revealed that they prepared birthplace is Government Hospitals and the reaming respondents i.e. 32 (18%) have expressed their perception that Private Hospital are preferable to give the birth. The cluster analysis of data also provides the social status wise explanation that there are 7 (4%) of OC respondents, 19 (10.5%) of BCs and 10 (5.5%) of SCs are interested to go to the government hospitals. There are 10 (5.5%) of OCs and 23 (12.7%) of BCs were interested on Privates hospitals. Among the reaming of categories, the more number of BC respondents i.e. 70 (38.5%), 37 (20.5%) and the total number of ST community respondents i.e. 3 (1.7%) and only few {2(1.1%)} of OC respondent are still interested to give birth under the observation or treatment of traditional birth attendant.
Practices after Delivery:
Women underfed themselves during pregnancy and strove for a small baby to ensure easy delivery. Babies were not to be breast fed on first three days and baby-clothes were not used till a ceremony (purudu/Naming) on 9th day to 21st day. Mothers could not leave the delivery room till that day. To minimize the toilet needs, they severely restricted their intake of fluids and food during first week after delivery. Mothers did not wash hands properly; their clothes and linen were often dirty. Newborn babies, even if sick, were not moved out of home. The usual explanations for the sicknesses in neonates were ‘evil eye’, ‘witch craft’, or ill effects of foods eaten by mother.
The practice of breast-feeding female children for shorter periods of time reflects the strong desire for sons. If women are particularly anxious to have a male child, they may deliberately try to become pregnant again as soon as possible after a female is born. Conversely, women may consciously seek to avoid another pregnancy after the birth of a male child in order to give maximum attention to the new son
Summary and Conclusions:
Due to the orthodoxical and traditional dogma, majority numbers of respondent are not possess proper notion on Women’s health. In addition to supernatural beliefs about what brings on disease, women also have some beliefs about the non-physical causes of ill-health. The most commonly found syndrome was ‘weakness’ which consists of fatigue, body ache, ghabrahat (a generic term used for anxiety, fear, restlessness, trepidation, etc.), pallor, low backache and burning of palms and feet. Thus poverty, illiteracy and social backwardness complete the subordination of women. In reality, therefore, most women carry a tremendous degree of mental anguish and agony due to the improper beliefs and practices.
However, practices existed to over come or to tune with the problems, which may be physical, psychological, cultural and environmental. Subsequently practices are to be strengthen in order to persisting as the beliefs. Once, belief is to be got its own identity; the existence of practice should automatically come by the deeds of the victims or followers. Sometimes belief might be deteriorate due to the business, cost effective and the rationalism should also vanish the irrational beliefs so that we can eventually conclude beliefs exist by the practices which may takes place to over come the problems or to adjust with the nature.
References:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief
2. Giger, J.N., & Davidhizar, R. E. (2004): “Transcultural nursing: Assessment and intervention” (4th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby publication.
3. Spector, R. E. (2004): “Cultural diversity in health & illness” (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall Health publication..
4. Bundek, N. I., Marks, G., & Richardson, J. I. (1993): “Role of health locus of control beliefs in cancer screening of elderly Hispanic women”. Health Psychology, 12(3), 193-1999.
5. Pachter, L. M. (1994) “Culture and clinical care: Folk illness beliefs and behaviors and their implications for health care delivery”. Journal of the American Medical Association, 271(9), 690-694.
6. Roberson, M. H. (1987): “Folk health beliefs of health professional”. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 9(2), 257-263.
7. Treistman, J. (1988): “Health beliefs in socio-cultural perspective”. In G. Caliandro & B. L. Judkins (Ed.), Primary nursing practice (pp. 119-133). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.
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How does a vasectomy lead to improvement in health outcomes for women?
If a man has a vasectomy, how would it affect women's health and how would it lead to improvement in women's health?what are some strategies to improve women's health?
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Infertility and Des Exposure
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Women who were pregnant between 1938 and 1971 were commonly given diethylstilbestrol (DES) by their doctors. DES is a synthetic estrogen. Doctors used to believe that DES helped to reduce the number of miscarriages and premature births that women were experiencing. If your mother was given DES, then you may experience some infertility problems or other health complications as a result.
First, try to determine if your mother was given DES during her pregnancy with you. This may be hard to determine because it may have happened so long ago. Also, many doctors just told their patients that they were taking vitamins. The really sad part about this is that DES exposure can cause cancer and infertility in the women that took it, as well as their children. If you determine that you were exposed to DES, then you should inform your doctor or infertility specialist so that special care can be taken, especially during infertility treatment.
Being exposed to DES in utero puts women at a higher risk for pregnancy complications such as ectopic pregnancies, miscarriage or premature deliveries. This does not mean that you are incapable of becoming pregnant and carrying to term if you have been exposed to DES. Many women do become pregnant and carry to term despite their exposure. The reasons that DES has negative effects on women are not entirely clear. It is widely believed that the DES exposure affects the formation of the cervix. If this is true, then it can explain why exposed women have a higher number of miscarriages than non-exposed women.
If you suspect that you have been exposed to DES, then it is very important to work closely with your family physician or infertility specialist. Your doctor should order screenings to see if you have any of the negative health effects of DES exposure. Breast exams and mammograms should be performed regularly. Self breast exams should be performed at least monthly so that you can catch changes early. You should receive regular pelvic exams and PAP smears. Your doctor may do an extra type of PAP smear to check for clear cell adencarcinoma, believed to be caused by DES exposure.
Clear cell adencarcinoma is the type of cancer believed to be linked to DES exposure. This is a rare type of cancer that affects the vagina and cervix. Survival rates are very high for this type of cancer. The most common treatment for clear cell adencarcinoma is surgery. The surgery usually includes the removal of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. Occasionally the vagina, or parts of the vagina, must also be removed. The surrounding lymph glands may also be removed. Radiation may also be used to treat the cancer.
Work closely with a caring physician or infertility specialist that understands what you could be facing. If it is determined that you were exposed to DES, then you will need special health care as well as special pregnancy monitoring in your quest to conquer infertility.
On occasion, patients of Dr. Daiter, Eric have offered their testimonials for other couples seeking quality infertility treatment. This testimonial may help you with your decision when you are choosing a reproductive endocrinologist for your infertility treatment.
Dr. Daiter, Eric was always discussing with us where we were and what our next options were. He explained all the various treatments from mildly aggressive to very aggressive and worked with us to come up with a plan that we all felt comfortable with. I always felt like he kept me very well informed so that I could make intelligent choices. He always personally called me when ever I had some tests done, as soon as he got the results and discussed them. This was usually within a day of the tests being done. That really stood out in my mind because, with all my other doctors, when I have lab work done, it takes a good week before I hear anything from them. Even then, many times their policy is to have the office staff call only when there is a problem. You can only hope that nothing was overlooked.
I spoke to other people who were going to other Infertility Specialists in the area and they said their doctors would only discuss the test results after a whole series of tests were done. The patients expressed that the doctors made them feel rushed and uncomfortable asking a lot of questions. They also expressed that the office staff was rude and abrupt with them when they called with questions. I was very fortunate – I never felt this way with Dr. Daiter, Eric or his office staff.
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What are some symptoms of infertility in women?
I am wondering if there are any women who are unable to concieve. How did you find this out? I have always had irregular periods ranging from 47-90 days, currently I have not had my period for almost 6 months and I am not pregnant. My doctor said I could induce a period if I wanted to but I don't really want to go on drugs. Any advice or personal stories would be appreciated.
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How to Decide Which Beauty Treatments are for You
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There are very few women who have not obtained one or more specific beauty treatments in the past. These types of treatments can range anywhere from a simple haircut to an extensive spa treatment. Obtaining these beauty-related treatments provide many benefits for individuals, both men and women. They provide one with a feeling of being relaxed in addition to being well groomed. For those who may not have had too many types of beautification treatments in the past, the following will highlight ways to determine which types of treatments may be right for you with regard to the beauty arena.
The first way to determine which beauty treatments to have performed is to simply ask yourself what you think you would like. Some individuals find that there is nothing more wonderful than the thought of a relaxing massage whereas others are a bit more hesitant to have this type of beauty treatment performed. If you find that you have certain likes and dislikes in this area, then this will help you to tailor your decision to those treatments which appear to be your perfect idea of a spa day.
Another way to decide which type of beautification treatments to receive is to figure out which treatments you need to have done. By looking in the mirror you may be able to tell that a haircut and eyebrow wax are a must which allows you to tailor your chosen beauty-related treatments to the ones which will really come in handy at that point in time. If you find that there are certain spa treatments which you simply must have done then this is another smart way to narrow down the spa services and pick one which will truly benefit you and your appearance.
Cost should be another determining factor with regard to spa services and beauty type treatments, especially if you find yourself on a budget these days. Since these items can be a bit pricey, it is a good idea to look at the cost of the treatments in order to aid you in the decision making process. Whether you decide to go to a spa to have beatification treatments performed or whether you plan to beautify yourself in the privacy of your own home, considering cost will help to point you in the right direction in many cases.
In addition, certain types of spa style treatments will be more readily available than others will. For example, those who simply want a pedicure may find it easier to acquire than those who want a special type of hair highlighting procedure performed. When trying to figure out which beauty type treatment is right for you, consult various sources such as spas, beauty shops and product stores to see if your desired treatment product or service is available to you. If not, you may find that choosing other types of beauty treatments in order to help you to relax or feel good about your appearance may be the better direction to go in.
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beauty treatment
Irregular Menstruation Natural Treatment – You Can Treat Irregular Menstruation
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If you are looking for irregular menstruation natural treatment, look no further but herbal treatment. This is because herbs have become an increasingly popular as natural therapy for common symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), including cramps and bloating. Chinese and Ayurvedic herbs have been touted as being very beneficial in treating many menstruation problems, like irregular menstruation, as well as tackling other common menstrual troubles like irritating nature, anger, menstrual cramps and pains in pelvic and back region.
But how exactly do herbs can be used as irregular menstruation natural treatment and also what types of herbs act best in treating different menstruation issues and its associated conditions?
There are some specific herbs used as irregular menstruation natural treatment since they have capability to restore the female hormones and also to calm down their aggressive moods.
For instance the following menstrual problems and menstrual symptoms can be treated using the following natural herbs:
* Menstrual cramps: The herbs like false unicorn root and cramp bark are reported to reduce and relieve cramps associated with PMS and thus can bring PMS relief. Red raspberry is another herb which can relieve the menstrual cramps. These herbs can be particularly helpful for women who have dysmenorrhea. Ayurvedic herb Jatamansi is especially helpful for the conditions associated with menstruation.
* Heavy periods: Herbs such as shepherd’s purse, yarrow, and nettles help to reduce heavy bleeding as they direct the flow of blood away from the pelvic region. Women who have been suffering from chronically heavy menstruation, known as menorrhagia, are prime indications to get benefited from healing properties of such herbs.
* Irregular periods: The women who suffer from irregular periods, a condition whose medical term is oligomenorrhea, there are plenty of Ayurvedic and Chinese herbs that can help to regulate their menstruation periods. Such herbs include jatamansi, ashoka, blue cohosh, ginger and skullcap and kumari. Parsley is also reported to check irregular or absent periods.
Irregular menstruation natural treatment also includes some holistic healing techniques (such as holistic exercises like yoga and Pranayama) that help in calming down the aggressive mood and also to check out the imbalance in the female hormones. Generally, the herbs that contain healing properties help alleviating more than one health problems. Because herbs work in a both ways; they prevent and treat a variety of illnesses, diseases and conditions including menstruation problems. Herbs are also said to treat a person’s overall physical and emotional health and not only some particular symptoms.
Irregular menstruation natural treatment can be achieved by consuming some herbal products. But herbs work best when they are accompanied with some other natural therapies such as including a healthy diet and balanced fitness programs. In this way, a woman suffering from menstruation problems can also get benefited of some other illnesses like:-
* Depression
* Stress
* Insomnia
* Headache
* Muscle tension and pain
* Anxiety
In any case, if the menstruation problems are not relieved using natural therapies, one should immediately rush to some gynecologist to find out the underlying cause, which could be serious and may require some surgical approach.
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Walt Disney’s The Story Of Menstruation (1946)
Help answer the question
How does a woman know if they have a regular menstruation cycle?
Hi I just wanted to know what kind of characteristics would put a womans menstruation in the "regular cycle" catagory. Like for instance does her menstruation need to come the same number of days or the same day of the month or does it need to come just every month ?
menstruation
Why is My Itchy Vagina Also Sore – Reasons for Painful Vaginal Itching Infections?
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There is nothing more embarrassing than having an itch on the vagina when out socializing. It`s funny if you think about it, if an itch is on the end of your nose, your head or ear you scratch it regardless of who stands before you, but when it`s round the crotch/anus then the way we get relief is not so openly done. Could this have something to do with why the genitals are called the privates, hence the secrecy between fingers meeting up with the itchy vagina? Okay it doesn’t look nice to scrawb at your bits when in the company of people, but an itch is an itch and made for scratching. And another thing is, what must people think for why you scratch i.e. pubic lice (crabs) or maybe VD might even cross their mind. Now you can always retreat around the corner out of sight to scratch, or find the root cause for your itchy vagina and cure it. There are many reasons accountable for a vaginal itch or anus one. If you itch because you have a vaginal rash then this is easily treated and rid using home treatments, however and more often than not an itchy vagina comes about from vaginal infections.
One infection strongly connected for causing an itch is vaginal thrush. As with specific infections they can also affect the vaginal opening and surrounding skin along with pain. Bear in mind that not all women get the symptoms associated with infection but if they do, the way they cope and respond to vaginal treatments can differ greatly. There are 3 common infections we address on a regular basis and the reason why is, because it is normally one of them that is responsible for a vaginal itch.
If you experience vulval discomfort then we look towards the thrush infection, bacterial vaginosis, trichomonas vaginalis and herpes simplex.
Thrush
Thrush as we are aware is caused by a fungal organism called Candida albicans which lives in our bodies. Candida albicans grow and mass around the genitals which bring on thrush symptoms. Clarified symptoms are a white, thick, yeasty smelling vaginal discharge, and a very itchy sore and red vulval region. Sometimes the rectum (anal) opening can also become painfully itchy. Most Vaginal infections excluding some STDs are treated with antifungal drugs, vaginal creams, and vaginal pessaries. Creams and pessaries which need inserting inside the vagina can however cause burning and skin irritation similar to the thrush infection. Because of this confusion comes to the fore over whether it `s the side effects of the treatment or the symptoms of the infection. Although vaginal treatments are deemed safe particular feminine products have to be ideal for you and the infection you suffer from. If vulval skin is itchy and sore then cream can help with easing discomfort. Some medications come in oral form. Personal preference will prevail for whatever treatment you use, however if it is not a 100% for clearing your infection then it is waste of time and money leaving you still infected. Temporary cures are not want you want you want rid and gone forever. If you`re pregnant or breastfeeding consult with GP before using vaginal treatments.
Treatment for thrush can be obtained from the pharmacy but talk to the pharmacist before purchase because; it is possible to mis-use treatments for vaginal itching/soreness that are not thrush. Wrong treatments may lead to long-standing vulval problems and can worsen the condition you set out to heal.
Don`t let anyone tell you any different that after being diagnosed with thrush that you have been sexually active. Thrush is not a sexually transmitted infection. Thrush does not always cause symptoms in men and may present as balanitis or a non-specific urethritis (NSU.)
Bacterial Vaginosis
Bacterial Vaginosis also like thrush bringing soreness, burning and itching of the vulva but hardly ever sees redness or swelling. We associate the unpleasant fishy smell with bacterial Vaginosis and a smelly grey or white vaginal discharge. Bacterial Vaginosis (BV) happens when the good bacteria in the vagina are removed to make way for bad bacteria. So it is bad bacteria we look to treat and destroy to ease soreness, relieve itching and rid the fishy smell. Because of similar symptoms it is easy to think you have thrush when you have BV. Bacterial Vaginosis is the more severe out of the two infections because it can lead to internal infection called pelvic inflammatory disease.
Trichomonas Vaginalis
Have you been diagnosed with having Trichomonas Vaginalis but at the time of diagnosis did not hear clearly or understand what the GP had to say. This happens regular where a woman might have been frightened by the medical term used for her condition and goes home none the wiser. Well Trichomoniasis or Trich as it is called at times is a vaginal infection which causes vulva soreness, reddening and inflammation. A common symptom of Trich is a foamy, yellow greenish vaginal discharge. Some women feel pain when weeing. The organism responsible for the symptoms is a parasite in the vaginal mucus. It spreads through penetrative vaginal sex and the exchange of vaginal fluid, meaning, sharing sex toys or sex gadgets.
Herpes Simplex is a viral infection
This virus exists in two types. Herpes simplex type 1 appears as cold sores around the mouth, and herpes simplex type 2 involves the genitals. When the infection first takes hold, painful sores show on the vulva and vagina. It may hurt to urinate as urine is acidic and stings if it comes in contact with herpes sores. Other symptoms include a tingly and itchy vagina, swollen glands in the groin and general flu-like symptoms. Swollen glands or flu-like symptoms only happen during the first attack.
As with particular viral infections, there is no permanent way of ridding herpes and its recurrence.
Now we have covered vaginal infections let us focus on the vaginal rash and how to treat it. This shouldn`t take long as it is just simply water that will do the trick. There are solutions for soothing but just keeping the vagina fresh airy and dry will speed up the recovery process making this the best solution.
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Help answer the question
what is the real treatment for vagina warts?.?
A pregnant woman at 6 months complained to me about vagina itches and small growths arround the vulva.Two weeks after delivery the spread and growth increased.On examination i found out that she had vagina warts.Some MDs. have said it is a viral infection that hadly resolves with medical treatment.
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Female Fertility
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Women have not got it easy when it comes to getting pregnant. There are so many fertility issues regarding women that you don’t know where to turn. Here is a simple and quick guide to female fertility and female infertility all to increase your chances to having a baby and getting pregnant.
The first thing you need to do is see your doctor and gynecologist and get a full check done to see if everything is working properly. If not then at least you can get it dealt with as soon as possible. You may have previously been on the contraceptive pill and wonder how long it takes for the birth control bill to get out of your system. It depends upon the strength of the contraceptive pill and your own unique body. We have heard it can take 6 months or a lot longer even. The average time it takes to conceive successfully is around 1 1/2 to 2 years.
Polycistic Ovarian Syndrome PCOS is a common condition, which affects women fertility on different levels and degrees. You may recognise some of the symptoms such as excess hair growth, irregular periods and sometimes painful period pains, difficulty in losing weight, etc. These may seem very common symptoms and this is why you need to have PCOS tests done if you feel you may have Polycistic Ovarian Syndrome PCOS.
There are many female fertility tests available for women as well as men available from most pharmacies, drug stores, and fertility clinics. Women’s free fertility tests can not be 100% accurate but can lead you in the right direction.
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Help answer the question
How do women determine their general fertility?
I have read that some women are more fertile than others.
Besides actually becoming pregnant, is there some way to determine one's own general fertility (I am not referring to fertility in specific stages of the cycle)? Is there a test?
My husband and I are on "the Pill" (and we will not be ready for a child for a long time). Is it true that women who are more fertile require a higher dosage of oral contraceptives? If I'm more fertile than most, I'd really like to know.
Are there methods to reduce fertility (aside from the obvious: hysterectomy or malnutrition)?
Thanks for your time and your input.
women fertility