Food is the matter that is taken into the body to supply nourishment or to replace tissue-waste. Every physical act consumes a part of the force that has been derived from food. The maintenance of the body-heat consumes another part, and in growing individuals a certain amount is utilized in building up the new tissues.

Food as it is taken into the body differs very much in composition from the material that can be utilized in cell-growth and in replacing the tissue-waste. The function of digestion is so to alter the food that it may be absorbed by the blood, and prepare it for assimilation and utilization by the various tissues. The food of mankind is most varied in nature, differing with the seasons, and with climates, races and countries.

The study of foods is a most complex one, and until recently few scientific investigations along this line had been made. Fortunately, however, experiments are now being carried on the world over, and it is to be hoped that the subject of diet in health and in disease will soon be lifted out of the vale of empiricism where it has so long rested.

Water enters into the composition of every tissue in the body and forms more than 60 per cent, of the entire body weight of a full-grown man. As it is not burned up in the metabolic processes, it does not furnish any energy.

The earthy salts, which form about 6 per cent, of the body weight of an adult man, furnish little if any energy. They are most abundant in the bones and teeth, but they also enter into the composition of other tissues and fluids of the body. The principal salts of the body are calcium phosphate and the various compounds of potassium, sodium, magnesium, and iron. The mineral salts are very necessary to life and health.

Proteins are substances which contain nitrogen, are essential to life, and are regarded as combinations of the various amino-acids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen protein generally contains sulphur and some of them phosphorus, iron, copper, iodine, manganese and zinc.

The proteins are variously classified and two elassfications, based on the solubility, have been suggested, one by the English Society of Physiologists and one by the American Society of Biochemists.

Proteins are essential to life and the body is constantly metabolizing it, whether any is being taken in or not. In ordinary life the body is in protein (or nitrogen) equilibrium and as much protein as is ingested is metabolized. It is difficult to get a positive nitrogen balance, except after prolonged fasting or after recovery from wasting diseases or during the period of body growth.

A negative nitrogen balance is seen in starvation where more is used up than is taken in and in all wasting diseases, such as tuberculosis, in fevers, and hyperthyroidism. In pathological states such as nephritis there may be retention of nitrogen compounds in the body due to the failure of the kidney to excrete them, and if the amount exceeds a certain amount a condition of poisoning and uremia is brought about.

Some food proteins are better suited for human food than others, because when broken up into their elementary parts or amino-acids more of these can be utilized in forming the various body tissues than those derived from other foods. For this reason the proteins of milk, meat, eggs and fish are most valuable, those of rice and potatoes next in value, while those of wheat, maize and beans are distinctly inferior.

Question and Answer

Malcolm Blake -
About the Author:

Malcolm Blake has researched and written about health, diet and exercise. To see more of his writing, visit his article about flat stomach – how to get one

In 1977, Hollywood released a documentary that propelled the arena of body building into the public consciousness. The flick was “Pumping Iron”, and it’s young star was the formerly unknown Arnold Schwarzenegger. With the flick’s release, the game enjoyed a jump in popularity, making way for what would later be known as the “Golden Era” of body building.

One of the first steps to getting serious about weightlifting is to learn all that you can about it. There are multiple ways you can educate yourself on the game, but one of the simplest strategies to do so is find body building videos that are geared towards optimizing your work out routine and helping you build the body that you want. In addition, these body-building videos can help keep you galvanized and on track with maintaining your work out regimen and reaching your goals.

As you start your search for the ideal body-building video, you’ll discover that there are a huge number of them currently on the market, covering a range of different subjects. It can be difficult, not to mention a touch confusing, confusing, to figure out which of these videos will be the most useful in helping you to reach your goals. There’s no necessity to panic! Just remember that these videos are designed to help you with explicit goals, and keeping these goals in mind will help you make the best choice.

On the other hand, if you’re more focused on diving into the competitive arena of body-building, then a video that concentrates on contests will be a better fit. Irrespective of what your goals are, there’s probably a body building video that will assist you in achieving them, so think about specific issues when you’re making a decision.

While there are many places you can find muscle-building videos, the best place is maybe is probably at an internet retailer such as amazon or ebay. Wherever you finish up finding your video, do not forget to choose one that will offer you tips and recommendation which will assist you in achieving your explicit goals, and then with a little time and work, you can get the body that you have dreamed of!
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Question and Answer

Body Build001 -
About the Author:

G. Donald Ttoca Is an avid internet user and currently runs a number of video based website built with Video Blizzard, a software platform that creates instant video websites. http://heroapps.com

Whenever you buy any kind of vitamins, minerals, or any other type of health supplements, you need to consider one very important factor first: That not all vitamins, minerals, and health supplements are created equal. Why is this so? Well, consider the facts. Nutritional supplements, like any other product, are manufactured by companies. As you know, companies are in it for the money, so their focus really is on increasing profits while cutting down on expenses. So even if that would mean great results in business, it’s not exactly great for our body’s health.

How dose cutting costs relate to health supplements, by the way? There are ways to make manufacturing health supplements cheaper, like putting in extra ingredients in lieu of the main ingredient. These are called binders and fillers. These ingredients are put there to prevent the other substances from caking together, and they are also used as fillers and to bind the other ingredients. These are not necessarily bad things, but they can be if you’re overusing them.

There are two common mistakes that a lot of people make when they go to a health food store and buy health supplements. First, they usually focus on the price of the product. This is generally considered to be a big mistake. People have to remember that nowadays, cheaper doesn’t necessarily mean better. Quality products take more time and resources to produce, so they usually cost more. And our health and those of our families should not have a price tag on it.

Second, they look at the quantities. I have known lots and lots of people that compare two products like this. For example, they pick up a bottle of vitamins that indicates 500mg of Vitamin C. The other bottle says only 250mg of Vitamin C. They immediately think that the former is better. Your body is not going to absorb all these extra milligrams anyway. One thing I would suggest to you is to carefully read the labels. And remember what I mentioned a while ago about those fillers and binders. If you find health supplements that are full of these extra ingredients, or come much cheaper than usual, forget it.

Ignore the amount and read the labels. If you need any help, ask the staff or salespersons. Unfortunately, some stores hire people without any knowledge at all about the items they are selling, so if you find that the staff doesn’t even know what he’s talking about, then go elsewhere. Here’s a quick rule of thumb: Get the health supplement with the least possible amount of fillers. How do you know? Because when you read the labels like I told you, you will recognize and see many other extra ingredients. Lots of reputable companies that make quality health supplements are now using recyclable packaging, so this would also be a guide for you.

When buying health supplements, it’s always wise to pick ones from good brands. You won’t always get it the first time, but you’ll soon learn to recognize them after a while. The better products do tend to be a bit more expensive; however, you will need to take them less frequently to get the same benefits, so it’s going to pay off in the long run for you and your body.

Question and Answer

Syahrul Azlan Idris -
About the Author:

Azlan Irda is a co-founder of http://www.healthsupplementsite.com, where you can get quality supplements at affordable prices. Visit us for your health supplement needs.

Most people are unaware about the logic behind the balanced diet. In their view, the body accepts adequate vitamins and minerals through whatever they consume. However, this is a mere myth. Many times, the body craves the need for using health supplements to compensate on many essential nutrients, important for the smooth living of a person.

More about Health Supplements

Health supplements are usually considered to be safe. However, it is always suggested to take health supplements that are certified by a recognized body of the country. This helps you to make sure that the health nutrients are safe and do not have any ill effects. Though, there are some health supplements which are not recommended for teens. This is because of the fact that they might contain steroids that cause hurt to the body. When taking health supplements, look out for any warning signals or possible side effects such as headache, stomach discomfort, rashes, and faintness. This is only because some health supplement may include elements that may prove to be allergic to some individuals.

Where to Find?

Health supplements can be obtained from the general pharmacy shop or from the many online stores available on the internet. All you have to do is to decide the health supplement that fulfills your vitamin and mineral needs. Most people think that health supplements are for sport persons only but such additions can be effecting for all. People suffering from different kinds of sickness need health supplements to enhance their natural immunity and resistance to the illness. Pregnant woman, lactating woman and old age persons can also use health supplements to overcome their physical weakness. Health supplements aid to compensate insufficiency caused in the body.

Take Precautions

It is significant to utilize health supplements in their stipulated dosage. Taking extra amount of minerals and vitamins is not advisable. Always discuss with your physician before using any health supplements as there are some health supplements that may affect your health adversely. Some individuals use energy bars as health supplements. However, though this is fine for athletes who burn lots of calories, they can turn out to be additional calories to the average person!

Nowadays, people have become more health conscious and are sensitive of the benefits of health supplements. Along with health nutrients, it is vital to have as varied and balanced diet as possible. Remember, health supplements are meant only to act as extra nutrients to the body, and not as the only food to the body!

Question and Answer

Synapse India -
About the Author:

Myself webmaster of health-medical-portal.info, a free health medical guide offers listings of health service providers, health medical encyclopedia, health online pharmacy and resources on alternative health products etc.

Natural health supplement- ideally speaking, we all should get the essential nutrients from the food that we eat. In other words, we all should have a balanced diet. But in today’s world, this is not possible at all the times due to a number of reasons like busy lifestyles, processed foods, etc and many such factors demand for the need of additional natural health supplements to maintain yourself in good health.

These natural health supplements have no side effects at all as they all come naturally from Mother Nature. They always give you good results. Some of the natural health supplements are sugar, cholesterol, salt, saturated fats, whey proteins, etc. there re also pleasant natural health supplements that are flavored with vanilla, chocolates and strawberry to name a few.

The health benefits of vitamins and minerals are known to all. It plays a vital role in increasing the energy of the body and helps to heal it. Calcium and phosphorus is associated with the good health of the bones and teeth. Magnesium helps in strengthening the bones. Herbal tea is in great demand nowadays as a natural health supplement. Black haw has healing properties that can relieve minor back spasms. Devil’s claw is used to face the arthritis attacks. These natural health supplements help the individuals to reach their goals of muscle gain or weight loss.

Children health supplement- the market fro children health supplement is booming. All the parents want to give all the possible things to their child, so that he or she may not lack behind in any aspect in this competitive world. There are many health supplements available for children. Omega 3 is good for those children having attention deficiency and helps to increase the development of the brain. Omega 3 fish oils helps in improving memory, cognition and attention span. Omega 3 fatty acids improve the mental conditions and brain activities of the child. Calcium is an indispensible component in our diet that helps to build healthy bones, and prevents bone diseases and osteoporosis in future. Aloe Vera is also a great supplement for the kids in their diet. It helps in healing the body and your child benefits from increased immune system health as well as increased digestive tract health.

Anti-aging health supplements- there are anti-aging supplements that makes your skin as well as body turn back the clocks and helps in reducing the future effects of aging. These anti-aging supplements reduce the wrinkles on the skin, prevent sagging skin, improves the skin tone and pigmentation. When used on the skin it slows down the process of aging. It detoxifies your skin and removes the harmful toxins that dry your skin. They keep your skin moisturized and as a result, you appear younger than your actual age.

There are many health supplements in the market targeted to improve your overall health. Take advantage of it and lead a better lifestyle.

Question and Answer

James Peterson -
About the Author:

Are you interested in improving the health of your heart? If so, check out Michael Dixon’s new advanced magnesium super mineral product pMg. Simply click on heart-health.us.com and learn more about this patented product.

People use nutritional tools to cope the nutritional ideals that insert their body through food sources. Learning nutritional figures requirements for everybody typeface will ensure the no qualities is vulnerable to improper nutrition while departure through dieting and load debit programs. Learning nutritional numbers will ensure that everyone in the family gets a well feast tonight and has more energy the next day. The nutritional specifics provided on consumables allows people to expound a sound attention and body.

People use nutritional facts to help the body mend from foremost illnesses. A surgeon will place many people on restricted calorie diets after they are discharged from the infirmary next a sympathy spell or stroke. Heart patients are well accustomed to dietetic changes but often question if caloric restrictions will better their fitness. Using the nutritional facts on food, middle patients can watch the totality of sodium in the diet and it will help them deem calories at every meal.

These patients will see an apparent improvement in their circulatory routine after erudition nutritional numbers information. Helpful nutritional guidelines are on all canned foods and feeling patients can cure earlier when they see the totality fat substance in foods, and the total of cholesterol that they are introducing into their systems with the foods that they consume. Some low carb diets would neglect miserably if the enduring had not been cultured nutritional figures that identified the total carbohydrates in food crop.

Quick father diet policy can have unhealthy consequences if a person did not propose for the affects of mass defeat before the diet plan was started. Sudden credence damaged weakens the body and the immune method and some center patients will not be able to direct the stress located on the body during this time. Learning nutritional figures ideals will ensure that all agile establish diet diplomacy are feeling-strong as well as being low calorie diet campaign that are guaranteed to be very nutritious. Heart patients can learn from nutritional facts and spend authority in a strong way.

Some people are erudition nutritional numbers guidelines because these obliging pieces of information transmit how numerous foods influence import harm efforts and how the foods will ultimately change total body wellbeing. By culture the nutritional numbers morals, people result out which foods are low in calories. Those nutritional ideals will pay off handsomely when people can eat excluding and increase the same nutritional ethics without overeating. Detailing and informative facts about the nutritional values in foods will pilot people to drinking foods that are better and many dieters use nutritional numbers to misplace weighting while following the mindful guidance of a physician.

Many people will amend diet diplomacy after education nutritional data because some food scores will confine more vitamins and reserves. Other foods will be eliminated from the diet entirely because the nutritional data shows that these foods are high in baby satisfied and flooded fats. Some food stuffs will control defiant inflammatory characteristics which would help people that endure from tender hurting a great exchange. Some nutritional data shows food significance scores that will complete the body well in later being because the foods include antioxidants that delay the aging process.

Question and Answer

Jamey Sackville –
About the Author:

Visit the Food Nutrition Facts website to learn about apple nutrition and potato nutrition.

I’ll bet you’ve never even full the time to judge what your nutritional desires might be, or the importance of that diet on your fitness. Did you know that if the brain doesn’t get enough protein, it doesn’t polish precisely, or if the wholesome female body doesn’t get enough flax oil, omega-3 and omega-6 her body’s metabolism will not perform correctly and she is more susceptible to load obtain? All these pieces of information and many more are contributing factors to our nutritional desires, and our nutritional wishes are met through our ingestion routine, good or bad.

Nutrition as it applies to our daily lives means that we take in what we neediness to argue our body’s healthful imperial. Nutrition has become an important word credit to the involvement of the USDA in our daily food requirements, and the FDA’s involvement in determining what is and is not risky for us to consume.

Nevertheless what is our responsibility in the food amusement? Do we understand what our nutritional requirements are, how to block those requirements, and how to look for truthful nutritional cost in our foods? I’m not definite that diet has been successfully addressed in its own right. We consider food relative to our vitamin intake, our fortified cereals and milk, and in the milieu that we must “nutritional appraise” from our food choices. Nevertheless what really diet when useful to our daily forcibly functions?

Nutrition refers to the promotion of our body, in our ability to keep it wholesome and functioning as it is aimed to do. Our ability to give the body with all the required food, vitamins, and reserves so that we persist to flourish in our daily life processes.

How do we determine that we are providing the necessary nutritional wishes? The data comes by educating ourselves about what our individual wants are, the requests of our family, and then charming the facts and applying it to the foods we buy, that we practice, and that our families consume. Our nutritional wants and caloric request change as we age, the nutritional wants of a 13 year old teenager are much different to those of a 30 year old female.

Quite often, our vitamin and limestone requests outweigh our caloric wants. In those instances, we change to manufacture vitamins and reserves to fill the gap. This is a part of our nutritional wishes, also.

Nutrition is one of the most byzantine areas to gain useful data about, because there are so many components, and because each, someone has their own individual desires. Women’s desires disagree from those of men, and adult women’s desires fluctuate from those of an offspring child. As we age, our needs constantly change; therefore continuous schooling about diet is a truth of life. The information we have unfilled about the vigor choices and alternatives unfilled to us change daily. Very few remedial doctors ever address our nutritional needs, older the needs of a pregnant woman, or an already poorly serene. What about the needs of the well unwearied? To live healthy, there is nutrition, drill, mental, and emotional needs that must be met.

Question and Answer

How does poor nutrition affect a Childs ability to learn?

Can poor nutrition leave irreplaceable damage?

What are the needed nutrients for the mind to grow?

Jamey Sackville –
About the Author:

Information on pizza nutrition can be found at the Food Nutrition Facts site.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer deaths in women in the United States.  In 2008, approximately 184,450 patients were estimated to be diagnosed with invasive breast cancer, and an estimated 40,930 were estimated to die of this disease.   Furthermore, over 50,000 female carcinoma in situ breast cases would have been diagnosed.  The etiology of breast cancer is poorly understood with multiple genetic and environmental factors involved in the initiation and progression of cancer. 

Scandinavian Twin Study:  For years, there has been a hot debate as to whether the cause of breast cancer is genetic or environmental.  Then in 2000, Lichtenstein and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden published their study of 44,788 pairs of twins from the Swedish, Danish, and Finnish twin registries.  In this study, they looked at cancer risk with 28 different types of cancers and did statistical modeling of genetic and hereditary contributions in eleven different cancer types.  For breast cancer, they clearly showed that only 27% of breast cancers were due to genetic factors.  This was an even lower hereditary component than other common cancers such as prostate and colorectal.  This study and others have confirmed the fact that over 70% of breast cancers are influenced by environmental factors.

BRCA genes:  Although much attention has been made about hereditary breast cancer, only two genes are commonly tested for breast cancer risk assessment.  These two genes are tumor suppressor genes named “BRCA1″ and “BRCA2″ that are involved with DNA repair.  These two genes only account for about 5% of all breast cancers.  Because of the Scandinavian twin study, most experts believed that there are other yet to be discovered genes involved with breast cancer.  Because the chance of having a BRCA mutation in the general population is so low, genetic testing is not indicated in most patients.  However, if a patient has a family history of breast cancer, then a mathematical model can be used to determine if BRCA testing is indicated.  The likelihood of being a BRCA carrier increases with the number of relatives who had cancer and if the cancers occurred earlier in life.  For example, in families with four or more cases of breast or ovarian cancer under the age of 60, over 80% are found to have a damaged version of BRCA1 or BRCA2.  If a patient is a carrier of one or both of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, her risk of breast cancer dramatically increases.  According to estimates of lifetime risk, about 13.2% (132 out of 1,000 individuals) of women in the general population will develop breast cancer, compared with estimates of 36-85% (360-850 out of 1,000) of women with an altered BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene.  In other words, women with an altered BRCA1 and/or BRCA2 gene are up to eight times more likely to develop breast cancer than women without alterations in those genes.  The BRCA1 mutation confers a higher risk than a BRCA2 mutation.  Women who inherit a damaged BRCA1 gene have a 60-85% chance of developing breast cancer at some stage in their lives and a 20-40% chance of developing ovarian cancer.  For BRCA2, the risks are 40-60% and 10-20%, respectively.  

Family History and Breast Cancer:  Although the spotlight in hereditary breast cancer has been directed on the BRCA genes, the majority of patients with a family history of breast cancer are BRCA1 and BRCA2 negative.  Even in these BRCA negative patients, however, there is an increased risk of developing cancer with a family history of breast cancer.   Six factors (unrelated to BRCA genes) have been studied in patients with a family history of breast cancer.  They are as follows:

1.  Degree of relationship:  If the family member with a history of cancer is a first degree relative, the increased risk is much greater than for second degree relatives. 

2.  Number of relatives who have had breast cancer:  People with two or more family members who have had breast cancer are at higher risk than those with only one affected relative.

3.  Age of onset of cancer:  If the relative developed breast cancer at an early age (pre-menopausal), the risk is higher than if the relative developed post menopausal breast cancer.

4.  Bilateral breast cancer:  If the relative has a history of bilateral breast cancer, the risk is greater than having a relative with unilateral breast cancer.

5.  Gender of the relative:  If the family member with breast cancer is a man, the risk is higher.

6.  Other related early onset tumors:  If there is a family history of early onset ovarian cancer, this incurs an increased risk for a person.

How to decide whether you need the BRCA gene test

The following is an excerpt from the American Society of Breast Surgeons:

1.  Early onset breast cancer (diagnosed before age 50)

2.  Two primary breast cancers, either bilateral or ipsilateral
3.  A family history of early onset breast cancer
4.  Male breast cancer
5.  A personal or family history of ovarian cancer
6.  Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jewish heritage
7.  A previously identified BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation in the family

Any one of these features alone indicates a risk for harboring a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation.  The presence of more than one of these features raises that risk to greater than 10%, the traditional cutoff for recommending a BRCA test. Such patients should have access to BRCA testing.  A simple risk-calculation model based on the prevalence of mutations seen among women tested for BRCA mutations is available at http://www.brcacalculator.com.

Question and Answer

I also have severe burning on my left side, by the ribs..and what I assume is the spleen looks enlarged. I have joint pain, and my back burns so much that I thought I had a heating pad on lol…my mom said that means inflamation of the kidneys??? Is this cancer? Lyme disease? IDK
I had lyme disease last year, but was treated. I have joint pain,and the bite where the tick bit turns red on occasional days, but that was last year? I have had some headaches and hearing loss…LYME DISEASE?

Mai Brooks

Dr. Mai Brooks is a surgical oncologist/general surgeon, with expertise in early detection and prevention of cancer. More at www.drbrooksmd.com, thecancerexperience.wordpress.com and progressreportoncancer.wordpress.com.

New York Health Insurance

Health insurance is insurance that pays for all or part of a person’s health care bills. A health insurance policy is an annually renewable contract between an insurance company and an individual. With health insurance claims, the individual policy-holder pays a deductible plus co-payment (for instance, a hospital stay might require the first 1000 dollar of fees to be paid by the policy-holder plus 100 dollar per night stayed in hospital). Usually there is a maximum out-of-pocket payment for any single year, and there can be a lifetime maximum.

The purpose of health insurance is to help people cover their health care costs which usually include doctor visits, hospital stays, surgery, procedures, tests, home care, and other treatments and services.

According to the latest United States Census Bureau figures, around 85% of citizens have health insurance. 59.5% of these people receive their health insurance coverage through an employer, and about 9% purchase it directly from the market. Government sources cover 27.3% of the population. Those without health insurance coverage are expected to pay privately for medical services.

Types of New York Health Insurance (http://new-york.ixs.net/General/New-York-Health-Insurance/index.aspx ) The types of health insurance in New York are group health plans, individual plans, and government health plans such as Medicare and Medicaid. In the United States, government-funded Medicare programs help to insure the elderly and end stage renal disease patients.

Group Health Plans

A group health plan offers health care coverage for employers, student organizations, professional associations, religious organizations, and other groups. The employer may pay for part or all of the insurance cost (premium).

Individual and Family Health Insurance

Individual and family health insurance is a type of health insurance coverage that is made available to individuals and families, rather than to employer groups or organizations. These types of health care plans are sold directly to individuals. For those of you who are unemployed or self-employed, an individual health insurance policy is always an option. Unfortunately rates for these policies are high and the coverage is usually less comprehensive than a managed care plan. The good news is that, in many cases, your insurance premium will be tax deductible. Of course, if you’re married, you can always try to catch a ride on your spouse’s group health insurance benefits plan.

Health insurance can be further classified into fee-for-service or indemnity (traditional insurance) and managed care. Both group and individual insurance plans can be either fee-for-service or managed care plans.

Managed Care Health Insurance

These include HMO, PPO, and POS plans. Managed-care plans typically make use of healthcare provider networks. Healthcare providers within a network agree to perform services for managed-care plan patients at pre-negotiated rates and will usually submit the claim to the insurance company for you. In general, you’ll have less paperwork and lower out-of-pocket costs with a managed care health insurance plan and a broader choice of healthcare providers with an indemnity plan.

There are three main types of managed care plans:

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMO)

• Point-of-Service (POS)

• Preferred Provider Organizations (PPO)

All of these plans offer substantial health insurance benefits to members and their families. If you’re fortunate enough to have a choice of plan, consider the advantages, and disadvantages, of each. Compare the cost of care, the difference in premiums, deductible amounts and your freedom to choose a doctor outside the plan. There are numerous other coverages to compare as well — from prescription drugs to dental to alternative therapies. Be sure you understand the fine points of each.

Indemnity or Fee-For-Service Plan

Normally it covers the same expenses as managed care. The difference is your doctor is paid for each visit with the claim filed by either the patient or the medical provider. A big advantage– unlike some managed care plans, Fee-for-Service allows the patient a great deal of freedom in choosing which doctors and hospitals to use, but will probably involve higher out-of-pocket costs and more paperwork.

However, you’ll likely be required to pay an annual deductible before the insurance company begins to pay on your claims. An Indemnity plan may also require that you pay up front for services and then submit a claim to the insurance company for reimbursement.

Short-Term Health Insurance

Short-term health insurance plans are designed to protect against unforeseen accidents or illnesses, rather than to provide comprehensive coverage, and, as such, typically do not include coverage for preventive care, physicals, immunizations, dental or vision care. It covers for a limited period of time, and may be an ideal solution for those between jobs or those waiting for other health insurance to start. Typically, short-term plans offer coverage up to six months, although some plans may offer coverage up to 12 months. Purchasing a short-term medical insurance plan will make you ineligible for any guaranteed issue individual health plans commonly referred to as HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) Plans. HIPAA plans are usually very expensive and are generally intended for people with pre-existing medical conditions who would have trouble getting health insurance otherwise.

Medical Savings Account (MSA)

Medical savings account (MSA) is the most recent development in the area of health insurance. The principle behind the MSA is to take the bulk of the financial risk, and premium payments, away from the managed care and indemnity insurers, and allow individuals to save money, tax free, in a savings account for use for medical expenses. Individuals or their employers purchase major-medical policies, medical insurance policies with no coverage for medical expenses until the amount paid by the patient exceeds a predetermined maximum amount, such as 2500 dollar per year. These policies have extremely high deductibles and correspondingly low monthly premiums and the participants take the money that they would have spent on higher premiums and deposit it in an MSA. This money accrues through monthly deposits and also earns interest, and can be spent only to pay for medical care

What’s The Best Health Insurance Plan?

There is no one “best” plan for everyone. The best match for you and your family may be different than the best match for someone else. In order to help you answer this question, here are a few things to consider:

1. Are you going to need long-term coverage or just something for the short-term?

If you’re between jobs for 1-6 months, you may want to go for short-term coverage options. Alternatively, if you have no prospects of receiving group health insurance coverage through an employer, you may value the stability and increased benefits offered through an individual and family health insurance plan which will provide longer term coverage.

2. Are you looking for basic coverage or more comprehensive coverage?

Some insurance plans offer basic coverage (i.e., primarily inpatient hospitalization and outpatient surgery coverage) to cover you in case of a major accident or illness. These insurance plans typically have a lower monthly premium than plans with more comprehensive coverage, and may be appropriate for people who intend to use their insurance primarily in the event of a serious accident or illness. Other insurance plans that offer more comprehensive coverage may include benefits such as preventative care, physician services, prescription drug benefits and routine office visits. These insurance plans typically have a higher monthly premium than plans that only offer basic coverage, and may be appropriate for people who intend to use their insurance on a regular basis.

3. Would you pay for your services before you use them or when you use them?

If you choose a health insurance plan with a low monthly premium, you’re likely to have a higher co-payment or deductible. If you don’t anticipate making frequent use of your health insurance coverage, a higher-deductible plan with a lower monthly premium may suit you best.

4. How important to you is easy access to specialists?

Health insurance plans that require you to coordinate your care through a primary care physician typically require that you obtain a referral before seeing a specialist. So, if you prefer easier access to specialists, you may wish to consider a different type of plan.

5. Do you have a specific doctor or hospital that you would like to visit for healthcare?

Some insurance plans utilize provider networks. Pay special attention to the network of doctors or facilities that each health insurance plan utilizes. Also note that networks utilized by health insurance plans can change, so there is no guarantee that your doctor will always be contracted with your chosen health insurance plan.

6. What is the most you could pay out in case of a serious illness or injury?

Health insurance plans typically place limits on how much a member is required to pay out per year for his or her healthcare. This limit is often referred to as an out-of-pocket maximum. Once you’ve contributed this maximum amount toward your healthcare, the health insurance company typically covers all other costs for the remainder of the benefit year. If you’re concerned about what may happen to you in case of a serious illness or injury, you may wish to pay special attention to the out-of-pocket maximums for the health insurance plans you’re considering.

No matter what insurance plan you may choose, educate yourself and understand all the basics of the health insurance before finalizing anything.

For more information about New York Health Insurance visit: http://new-york.ixs.net

Question and Answer

Maria

Maria hosts http://events.ixs.net and expresses her passion for events through writing and discussion. She works for Less Corporation at http://www.ticketnest.com Copyright Heidi Grumm

Imbalance of Ecosystems and Its effect on Public and Livestock health

Dr.Kedar Karki M.V.St. (Preventive veterinary Medicine)

Central Veterinary Laboratory Tripureshwor

The health of humans, like all living organisms, is dependent on an ecosystem that sustains life. Healthy ecosystems are the sine qua non for healthy organisms. Yet there is abundant evidence that many life-support systems are far from healthy, placing an increased burden on human health. In some areas of the world, gains in life expectancy and quality of life made during the twentieth century are at risk of being reversed in the twenty-first century. The consequences of ecosystem degradation to human health are numerous, and include health risks from unsafe drinking water, polluted air, climate change, emerging new diseases, and the resurgence of old diseases owing to ecological imbalances. Reversing this damage is possible in some cases, but not in others. Prevention of ecological damage is by far the most efficient strategy.

DEFINING ECOSYSTEMS

An ecological system may be defined as a community of plants and animals interacting with each other and their abiotic, or natural, environment. Typically, ecosystems are differentiated on the basis of dominant vegetation, topography, climate, or some other criteria. Boreal forests, for example, are characterized by the predominance of coniferous trees; prairies are characterized by the predominance of grasses; the Arctic tundra is determined partly by the harsh climatic zone. In most areas of the world, the human community is an important and often dominant component of the ecosystem. Ecosystems include not only natural areas (e.g., forests, lakes, marine coastal systems) but also human-constructed systems (e.g., urban ecosystems, agro-ecosystems, impoundments). Human populations are increasingly concentrated in urban ecosystems, and it is estimated that, by the year 2010, 50 percent of the world’s population will be living in urban areas.

A landscape comprises a mosaic of ecosystems, including towns, rivers, lakes, agricultural systems, and so on. Precise boundaries between ecosystems are often difficult to establish. Often regions slide into one another gradually, over a protracted “transition” zone, as for example between the boreal forest and the Taiga regions of Canada.

ECOSYSTEM HEALTH

It is important to recognize the inherent difficulties in defining “health,” whether at the level of the individual, population, or ecosystem. The concept of health is somewhat of an enigma, being easier to define in its absence (sickness) than in its presence. Perhaps partially for that reason, ecologists have resisted applying the notion of “health” to ecosystems. Yet, ecosystems can become dysfunctional, particularly under chronic stress from human activity.Example for this can be cited the discharge of nutrients from sewage, industrial waste, or agricultural runoff into lakes or rivers affects the normal functioning of the ecosystem, and can result in severe impairment. Excessive nutrient inputs from human activity was one of the major factors that severely compromised the health of the lower Laurentian Great Lakes (Lake Erie and Lake Ontario) and regions of the upper Great Lakes (Lake Michigan). Unfortunately, degraded ecosystems are becoming more the rule than the exception.

The study of the features of degraded systems, and comparisons with systems that have not been altered by human activity, makes it possible to identify the characteristics of healthy ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems may be characterized not only by the absence of signs of pathology, but also by signs of health, including measures of vigor (productivity), organization, and resilience.

Vigor can be assessed in terms of the metabolism (activity and productivity) of the system. Ecosystems differ greatly in their normal ranges of productivity. Estuaries are far more productive than open oceans, and marshes have higher productivity than deserts. Health is not evaluated by applying one standard to all systems. Organization can be assessed by the structure of the biotic community that forms an ecosystem and by the nature of the interactions between the species (both plants and animals). Invariably, healthy ecosystems have more diversity of biota than ecologically compromised systems. Resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to maintain its structure and functions in the face of natural disturbances. Systems with a history of chronic stress are less likely to recover from normal perturbations such as drought than those systems that have been relatively less stressed.

Healthy ecosystems can also be characterized in economic, social, and human health terms. Healthy ecosystems support a certain level of economic activity. This is not to say that the ecosystem is necessarily self-sufficient, but rather that it supports economic productivity to enable the human community to meet reasonable needs. Inevitably, ecosystem degradation impinges on the long-term sustainability of the human economy that is associated with it, although in the short-term this may not be evident, as natural capital (e.g., soils, renewable resources) may be overexploited and temporarily enhance economic returns. Similarly, with respect to social well-being, healthy ecosystems provide a basis for and encourage community integration. Historically, for example, native Hawaiian groups managed their ecosystem through a well-developed social cohesiveness that provided a high degree of cooperation in fishing and farming activity.

Another reflection of ecosystem health lies directly in the public health domain. In spring 2000, a deadly strain of the bacterium E-coli (0157:H7) entered the public water supply in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada, causing seven deaths and making thousands sick. This small town, with a population of five thousand, is in a farming community. Inadequate manure management from cattle operations was the likely source of this tragedy.

HOW HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS BECOME PATHOLOGICAL

Stress from human activity is a major factor in transforming healthy ecosystems to sick ecosystems. Chronic stress from human activity differs from natural disturbances. Natural disturbances (fires, floods, periodic insect infestations) are part of the dynamics of most ecosystems. These processes help to “reset” ecosystems by recycling nutrients and clearing space for recolonization by biota that may be better adapted to changing environments. Thus, natural perturbations help keep ecosystems healthy. In contrast, chronic and acute stress on ecosystems resulting from human activity (e.g., construction of large dams, release of nutrients and toxic substances into the air, water, and land) generally results in long-term ecological dysfunction.

Five major sources of human-induced (anthropogenic) stresses have been identified by D. J. Rapport and A. M. Friend (1979): physical restructuring, overharvesting, waste residuals, introduction of exotic species, and global change.

Physical Restructuring. Activities such as wetland drainage, removal of shoals in lakes, damming of rivers, and road construction fragment the landscape and alter and damage critical habitat. These activities also disrupt nutrient cycling, and cause the loss of biodiversity.

Overharvesting. Overexploitation is commonplace when it comes to harvesting of wildlife, fisheries, and forests. Over long periods of time, stocks of preferred species are reduced. For example, the giant redwoods that once thrived along the California coast now exist only in remnant patches because of overharvesting. When dominant species like the giant redwoods (arguably the world’s tallest tree—one specimen was recorded at 110 meters tall with a circumference of 13.4 meters) are lost, the entire ecosystem becomes transformed. Overharvesting often results in reduced biodiversity of endemic species, while facilitating the invasion of opportunistic species.

Waste Residuals. Discharges from municipal, industrial, and agricultural sources into the air, water, and land have severely compromised many of the earth’s ecosystems. The effects are particularly apparent in aquatic ecosystems. In some lakes that lack a natural buffering capacity, acid precipitation has eliminated most of the fish and other organisms. While the visual effect appears beneficial (water clarity goes up) the impact on ecosystem health is devastating. Systems that once contained a variety of organisms and were highly productive (biologically) become devoid of most lifeforms except for a few acid-tolerant bacteria and sediment-dwelling organisms.

Introduction of Exotic Species. The spread of exotics has become a problem in almost every ecosystem of the world. Transporting species from their native habitat to entirely new ecosystems can wreck havoc, as the new environments are often without natural checks and balances for the new species. In the Great Lakes Basin, the accidental introduction of two small pelagic fishes, the alewife and the rainbow smelt, combined with the simultaneous overharvesting of natural predators, such as the lake trout, led to a significant decline in native fish species. The introduction of the sea lamprey, an eel-like predacious fish that attacks larger fish, into Lake Erie and the upper Great Lakes further destabilized the native fish community. The sea lamprey contributed to the demise of the deepwater benthic fish community by preying on lake trout, whitefish, and burbot. This contributed to a shift in the fish community from one that had been dominated by large benthics to one dominated by small pelagics (fish found in the upper layers of the lake profile). This shift from bottom-dwelling fish (benthic) to surface-dwelling fish (pelagic) has now been partially reversed by yet another accidental introduction of an exotic: the zebra mussel. As the zebra mussel is a highly efficient filter of both phtyoplankton and zooplankton, its presence has reduced the available food in the surface waters for pelagic fish. However, while the benthic fish community has gained back its dominance, the preferred benthic fish species have not yet recovered owing to the degree of initial degradation. Overall, the increasing dominance by exotics not only altered the ecology, but also reduced significantly the commercial value of the fisheries.

Global Change. Rapid climate change (or climate warming) is an emerging potential global stress on all of the earth’s ecosystems. In evolutionary time, there have of course been large fluctuations in climate. However, for the most part these fluctuations have occurred gradually over long periods of time. Rapid climate change is an entirely different matter. By altering both averages and extremes in precipitation, temperature, and storm events, and by destabilizing the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which controls weather patterns over much of the southern Pacific region, many ecosystem processes can become significantly altered. Excessive periods of drought or unusually heavy rains and flooding will exceed the tolerance for many species, thus changing the biotic composition. Flooding and unusually high winds contribute to soil erosion, and at the same time add to nutrient load in rivers and coastal waters.

These anthropogenic stresses have compromised ecosystem function in most regions of the world, resulting in ecosystem distress syndrome (EDS). EDS is characterized by a group of signs, including abnormalities in nutrient cycling, productivity, species diversity and richness, biotic structure, disease prevalence, soil fertility, and so on. The consequences of these changes for human health are not inconsiderable. Impoverished biotic communities are natural harbors for pathogens that affect humans and other species.

ECOSYSTEM HEALTH AND HUMAN HEALTH

An important aspect of ecosystem degradation is the associated increased risk to human health. Traditionally, the concern has been with contaminants, particularly industrial chemicals that can have adverse impacts on human development, neurological functions, reproductive functions, and that appear to be causative agents in a variety of carcinomas. In addition to these serious environmental concerns (where the remedies are often technological, including engineering solutions to reduce the release of contaminants), there are a large number of other risks to human health stemming from ecological imbalance.

Ecosystem distress syndrome results in the loss of valued ecosystem services, including flood control, water quality, air quality, fish and wildlife diversity, and recreation. One of the major signs of EDS is increased disease incidence, both in humans and other species. Human population health should thus be viewed within an ecological context as an expression of the integrity and health of the life-supporting capacity of the environment.

Ecological imbalances triggered by global climate change and other causes are responsible for increased human health risks.

Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases. The global infectious disease burden is on the order of several hundred million cases per year. Many vector-borne diseases are climate sensitive. Malaria, dengue fever, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, and various forms of viral encephalitis are all in this category. All these diseases are the result of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) which are transmitted to humans as a result of bites from blood-sucking arthropods.

Global climate change—particularly as it impacts both temperatures and precipitation—is highly correlated with the prevalence of vector-borne diseases. For example, viruses carried by mosquitoes, ticks, and other blood-sucking arthropods generally have increased transmission rates with rising temperatures. St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) serves as an example. The mosquito Culex tarsalis carries this virus. The percentage of bites that results in transmission of SLE is dependent on temperature, with greater transmission at higher temperatures.

The temperature dependence of vector-borne diseases is also well illustrated with malaria. Malaria is endemic throughout the tropics, with a high prevalence in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and parts of South and Central America and Mexico. Approximately 2.4 billion people live in areas of risk, with some 350 million new infections occurring annually, resulting in approximately 2 million deaths, predominantly in young children. Untreated malaria can become a life-long affliction—general symptoms include fever, headache, and malaise.

The climate sensitivity of malaria arises owing to the nature of the interactions of parasites, vectors, and hosts, all of which impact the ultimate transmission rates to humans. The gestation time required for the parasite to become fully developed within the mosquito host (a process termed sporogony) is from eight to thirty-five days. When temperatures are in the range of 20°C to 27°C, the gestation time is reduced. Rainfall and humidity also have an influence. Both drought and heavy rains tend to reduce the population of mosquitoes that serve as vectors for malaria. In drier regions of the tropics, low rainfall and humidity restricts the survival of mosquitoes. Severe flooding can result in scouring of rivers and destruction of the breeding habitats for the mosquito vector, while intermediate rainfall enhances vector production.

Ecological Imbalances. Cholera is a serious and potentially fatal disease that is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. While not nearly so prevalent as malaria, cases are nonetheless numerous. In 1993, there were 296,206 new cases of cholera reported in South America; 9,280 cases were reported in Mexico; 62,964 cases in Africa; and 64,599 cases in Asia. Most outbreaks in Asia, Africa, and South America have originated in coastal areas. Symptoms of cholera include explosive watery diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. The most recent pandemic of cholera involved more regions than at any previous time in the twentieth century. The disease remains endemic in India, Bangladesh, and Africa. Vibrio cholerae has also been found in the United States—in the Gulf Coast region of Texas, Louisiana, and Florida; the Chesapeake Bay area; and the California coast.

The increase in prevalence of V. cholerae has been strongly linked to degraded coastal marine environments. Nutrient-enriched warmer coastal waters, resulting from a combination of climate change and the use of fertilizers, provides an ideal environment for reproduction and dissemination of V. cholerae. Recent outbreaks of cholera in Bangladesh, for example, are closely correlated with higher sea surface temperatures. V. cholerae attach to the surface of both freshwater and marine copepods (crustaceans), as well as to roots and exposed surfaces of macrophytes (aquatic plants) such as the water hyacinth, the most abundant aquatic plant in Bangladesh. Nutrient enrichment and warmer temperatures give rise to algae blooms and an abundance of macrophytes. The algae blooms provide abundant food for copepods, and the increasing copepod and macrophyte populations provide V. cholerae with habitat. Subsequent dispersal of V. cholerae into estuaries and fresh water bodies allows contact with humans who use these waters for drinking and bathing. Global distribution of marine pathogens such as V. cholerae is further facilitated by ballast water discharged from vessels. Ballast water contains a virtual cocktail of pathogens, including V. cholerae.

Two other examples of how ecological imbalances lead to human health burdens concern the increased prevalence of Lyme disease and hantavirus pulmonary disease. Lyme disease, sonamed because it was first positively identified in Lyme, Connecticut, is a crippling arthritic-type disease that is transmitted by spirochete-infected Ixodes ticks (deer ticks). Ticks acquire the infection from rodents, and spend part of their life cycle on deer. Three factors have combined to increase the risk to humans of contracting Lyme disease, particularly in North America: (1) the elimination of natural deer predators, particularly wolves; (2) reforestation of abandoned farmland has created more favorable habitat for deer; and (3) the creation of suburban estates, which the deer find ideal habitat for browsing. The net result is a rising deer population, which increases the chances of humans coming into more contact with ticks.

By 1995, in the southwestern United States, hantavirus infection was confirmed in ninety-four persons in twenty states, with 48 percent mortality. Variants of the strain that causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome have also been found in other areas of the country, as well as in Asia and Europe. The virus is apparently asymptomatic in rodents, and it is transmitted in their saliva and excreta. In humans it has a flu-like presentation, which is followed by acute respiratory distress syndrome. The primary reservoir in the Four Corners area of the southwestern United States is the deer mouse. Climatic disturbances, which in recent years are thought to be exacerbated by human activity (e.g., global warming), appear to set up conditions that trigger outbreaks. In the early 1990s, ENSO events initially caused drought conditions to develop in the southwestern United States. This led to a decline in plant and animal populations, including natural predators of the deer mouse. Heavy rains followed the drought in 1993, resulting in a bumper crop of piñon nuts, a major food supply for the deer mouse. Subsequently the deer mouse population greatly increased, bringing about increased contact with humans and triggering the outbreak of hantavirus.

Antibiotic Resistance and Agricultural Practice Antibiotic resistance is a growing threat to public health. Antibiotic resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, a common bacterial pathogen in humans and a leading cause of many infections, including chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, and meningitis, have greatly increased in prevalence since the mid-1970s. In some regions of the world, up to 70 percent of bacterial isolates taken from patients proved resistant to penicillin and other b-lactam antibiotics. The use of large quantities of antibiotics in agriculture and aquaculture appears to have been a key factor in the development of antibiotic resistance by pathogens in farm animals that subsequently may also infect humans. One of the most serious risks to human health from such practices is vancomycin-resistant enterococci. The use of avoparcin, an animal growth promoter, appears to have compromised the utility of vancomycin, the last antibiotic effective against multi-drug-resistant bacteria. In areas where avoparcin has been used, such as on farms in Denmark and Germany, vancomycin-resistant bacteria have been detected in meat sold in supermarkets. Avoparcin was subsequently banned by the European Union. Another example is the use of ofloxacin to protect chickens from infection and thereby enhance their growth. This drug is closely related to ciprofloxacin, one of the most widely used antibiotics in the year 2000. There have been cases of resistance to ciprofloxacin directly related to its veterinary use. In the United Kingdom, ciprofloxacin resistance developed in strains of campylobacter, a common cause of diarrhea. Multi-drug-resistant strains of salmonella have been traced to European egg production.

Food and Water Security. Agricultural practices are also responsible for a growing number of threats to public health. Some of these are related to inadequate waste management, which has resulted in parasites and bacteria entering water supplies. Others are of entirely different origins and involve apparent transfer across species of pathogens that affect both animals and humans. The most recent and spectacular example is mad cow disease, known as variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, a neuro-degenerative condition that, in humans, is ultimately fatal. The first case of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), the animal form of the disease, was identified in Southern England in November 1981. By the fall of 2000, an outbreak had also occurred in France, and isolated cases appeared in Germany, Switzerland, and Spain. More than one hundred deaths in Europe were attributed to what has come to be commonly called mad cow disease.

Improper manure management was the likely source of the outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. Other health risks associated with malfunctioning agroecosystems include periodic outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic disease that is spread by surface runoff contaminated by feces of infected cattle. This parasite causes fever and diarrhea in immunocompetent individuals and severe diarrhea and even death in immunocompromised individuals.

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION

Ecosystem pathology in some cases can be reversed simply by removing the source of stress. In cases, for example, where ecosystem degradation is the result of point-source additions of nutrients or toxic chemicals, removal of these stresses may result in considerable recovery of ecosystem health. A classic case is Lake Washington (near Seattle, Washington). This lake had become highly anoxic (oxygen-depleted) owing to a sewage outfall entering the lake. Redirecting the sewage outfall away from the lake reversed many of the signs of pathology.

In cases where it is not feasible to remove the source of stress, more innovative engineering solutions have been tried. For example, in the Kyrönjoki and Lestijoki Rivers in western Finland, spring and fall runoff leads to sharp pulses of acidity. Spring runoff from snowmelt, which releases acid from tilled or dug soils, has been particularly damaging to fish, during the critical time of year for spawning. Fish reproduction is severely curtailed, if not all together eliminated in highly acidic water. Further there have been massive fish kills resulting from the highly acidic waters. One possible remedy is to replace the original drains which take runoff from the land to the rivers with new limed drains that can neutralize the acidity. This solution has been implemented on an experimental basis and appears to substantially reduce acidic runoff.

More radical treatments for damaged ecosystems involve “ecosystem surgery.” In some cases, invading exotic vegetation (such as mangroves in Hawaii) have been removed from regions, and native vegetation has been replanted. In areas of North America where wetlands have been severely depleted owing to farming, urbanization, and industrial activity, efforts have been made to establish new wetlands.

More often than not, however, reversing ecosystem pathology is not possible. Efforts to restore the indigenous grasslands in the Jornada Experimental Range in the southwestern United States provide an example. Overgrazing by cattle has severely degraded the landscape and has lead to replacement of the native grasses by largely inedible shrubs, dominated by mesquite. Erosion by wind and episodic heavy rains have left areas between shrubs largely bare, and subsequently underlying sands have developed in dune-like fashion over a large part of the area. The resulting mesquite dunes have proven highly resistant to efforts to restore the native grasslands, although almost every intervention has been tried, including highly toxic defoliants (Agent Orange), fire, and bulldozing.

Even where it has been possible to restore some of the ecological functions of degraded ecosystems, and thus improve ecosystem health, the restoration seldom results in reestablishment of the pristine biotic community. The best that can be achieved in most cases is reestablishment of the key ecological functions that provide the required ecosystem services, such as the regulation of water, primary and secondary productivity, nutrient cycling, and pollination. In all such efforts, key indicators of ecosystem health (vigor, productivity, and resilience) are essential to monitor progress. Standard ecological indicators can be used for this purpose (e.g., measures of productivity, species composition, nutrient flows, soil fertility) along with socioeconomic and human health indicators.

Experience in efforts to restore highly damaged ecosystems suggests that ecosystem-health prevention is far more effective than restoration. For marine ecosystems, setting aside protective zones that afford a sanctuary for fish and wildlife has considerable promise. Many countries are adopting policies to establish such areas with the prospect that these healthy regions can serve as a reservoir for biota that have become depleted in the unprotected areas. Yet this remedy is not without its limits. Restoring ecosystem health is not simply a matter of replenishing lost or damaged biota. It is also a matter of reestablishing the complex interactions among ecosystem lifeforms. Having a ready source of healthy biota that could potentially recolonize damaged ecosystems is important, but it is only part of the solution.

PREVENTION OF ECOSYSTEM DISRUPTIONS

Given the difficulties in reversing ecosystem degradation, and the many associated human health risks that arise with the loss of ecosystem health, the most effective approach is simply the prevention of ecosystem disruption. However, like many common-sense approaches, this is easier said than done. In both developed and developing countries there is a strong inclination to continue economic growth, even at the cost of severe environmental damage. Apart from selfish motivations, the argument is made that economic growth has many obvious health benefits, such as providing more efficient means of distributing food supplies, providing more plentiful food, and providing better health services and funding for research to improve standards of living. These are indeed benefits of economic development, and have led to substantial increases in health status worldwide.

However, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, the past is not necessarily the best guide to the future. The human population is at an all-time high, and associated pressures of human activity have led to increasing degradation of the earth’s ecosystems. As ultimately healthy ecosystems are essential for life of all biota, including humans, current global and regional trends are ominous. Under these circumstances, a tradeoff between immediate material gains and long-term sustainability of humans on the planet may be the only option. If so, the solution to sustaining human health and ecosystem health becomes one of devising a new politic that places sustaining life support systems as a precondition for betterment of the human condition.

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Question and Answer

2. are guidelines that can help you avoid crime or threatening situations to let someone know where you are going and when you expect to return?

3. Is hypertension considered to be the #1 risk increasing the likelihood of strokes?

4. Is jogging 30 minutes an example of cardiovascular or aerobic activity?

Dr.Kedar Karki

Senior Vet.Officer,Central Veterinary Laboratory Kathmandu Nepal M.V.St. Preventive Veterinary Mrdicine